Armistice Day centenary

Centenary of the WWI Armistice in 2018

Top to bottom, left to right:
  1. World leaders and dignitaries under the Arc de Triomphe
  2. Relatives of Gavrilo Princip and Archduke Franz Ferdinand shaking hands
  3. Remembrance Day ceremony in Toronto
  4. Commemorative exhibition at London King's Cross
Date11 November 2018; 5 years ago (2018-11-11)Participants
  • State and international organization representatives
  • Thematic institutions
  • Relatives of World War I veterans

The Armistice Day centenary was the international series of events Armistice of 11 November 1918, which ended hostilities in World War I. It marked the end of the First World War centenary, which covered a wider period from 2014 through 2018.

In the months leading up to the date of the centenary on 11 November 2018, numerous commemorations were planned both in conjunction with the annual series of Armistice Day, Remembrance Day and Veterans Day events and as part of commissions dedicated to marking the four-year centenary period. In Paris, France, over seventy heads of state and government attended an international ceremony at the Arc de Triomphe, followed by the opening of the inaugural Paris Peace Forum. In London, a service of thanksgiving was hosted at Westminster Abbey. Other military ceremonies took place elsewhere throughout the United Kingdom and in key members of the Commonwealth which participated in the war, while similar commemorations were held in Europe and across the world.

Background

Front page of The New York Times on 11 November 1918

The Armistice of 11 November 1918 was signed near the French town of Compiègne, between the Allied Powers and Germany—represented by Supreme Allied Commander Ferdinand Foch and civilian politician Matthias Erzberger respectively—with capitulations having already been made separately by Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary. The agreements made by both sides included the cessation of all land and air hostilities on the Western Front. It was agreed upon at 5 am (Paris time) and came into effect later that morning at 11 am.[1]

Formal peace negotiations only took place during the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 and 1920. With three extensions to the armistice having already been made, a state of peace was ratified with a series of treaties between the Allies and the former Central Powers, beginning with the Treaty of Versailles on 10 January 1920.[2][3]

Following the end of the war, 11 November was designated a memorial day initially dedicated to the anniversary of the armistice and the military dead of World War I, known as Armistice Day. The first such observance took place in 1919.[4] It has since been renamed in several countries under different names (e.g. Remembrance Day in Commonwealth countries and Veterans Day in the United States).

Organization

Several national governments drafted plans for commemorative events dedicated to the First World War centenary, which began with the 2014 anniversary of the outbreak of World War I and included marking key dates of the war such as the Gallipoli campaign in 2015 and the battles of Verdun and the Somme in 2016.[5][6]

In France, the French government's Mission Centenaire committee was responsible for organizing the centenary schedule.[6] The government of the United Kingdom announced that it would allocate a £19 million package for the centenary, with an additional £10 million being added to the annual budget made to the Armed Forces Covenant Fund Trust.[7]

France

On 18 September 2018, the official French schedule for the anniversary of the Armistice was revealed in a press conference hosted by education minister Jean-Michel Blanquer and Geneviève Darrieussecq, secretary of state to the Minister of the Armed Forces.[6]

International gathering

Excerpt of the Franco-German memorial plaque at Compiègne

The schedule for the centenary commemorations included an international commemorative event at the Arc de Triomphe followed by an inaugural peace forum, as elaborated by French President Emmanuel Macron.[8] Around 10,000 police officers, gendarmes and soldiers were placed on duty in the lead up to the events.[9] Invited guests included German Chancellor Angela Merkel, US President Donald Trump, and Russian President Vladimir Putin.

On 10 November 2018, Macron and Merkel visited the Glade of the Armistice at Compiègne, where they laid a wreath, unveiled a reconciliatory plaque and signed a book of remembrance in a replica of the railway carriage where the Armistice was signed. The visit was symbolic as it marked the first time that French and German leaders had visited the site since 1945.[10][11] Macron later held a bilateral meeting with Trump at the Élysée Palace, which took place a day after Trump tweeted that "Europe should first pay its fair share" of NATO defence expenditures in response to the former's suggestions for a continental European army.[12][13]

A similar meeting was planned between Trump and Putin, but it was ultimately scrapped due to the forthcoming G20 Buenos Aires summit.[14][15][16] Justin Trudeau, the prime minister of Canada, participated in separate commemorations at the Canadian National Vimy Memorial in northern France.[17]

Dignitaries arrived in Paris for an official dinner to be hosted on 10 November 2018 at the Musée d'Orsay, as well as visits to national memorials.[18][17]

Ceremony

International Ceremony for the Centenary of the 1918 Armistice
Date11 November 2018; 5 years ago (2018-11-11)
VenueArc de Triomphe, Paris, France
Coordinates48°52′25.6″N 2°17′42.1″E / 48.873778°N 2.295028°E / 48.873778; 2.295028
Participants§ Dignitaries

On the morning of 11 November, guests were received by Macron at the Élysée Palace before departing in unison.[19] Trump, Putin and Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu used their own transportation due to security concerns—ultimately showing up late to the venue—in contrast to other guests who were taken in coaches.[19][20][21]

The ceremony, officially titled the International Ceremony for the Centenary of the 1918 Armistice (French: Cérémonie internationale du Centenaire de l'Armistice du 11 novembre 1918),[22] began roughly after 11:00 CET, following a presidential inspection of troops, a roll call of French soldiers killed in the preceding year and an army choir rendition of La Marseillaise, the French national anthem.[23][24][25]

The event included a performance by cellist Yo-Yo Ma, who played the sarabande from Bach's Suite No. 5 in C minor. A group of testimonies dating to 11 November 1918 were read out by a group of teenage students in between, after which Ma performed the second movement of Ravel's Sonata for Violin and Cello with French violinist Renaud Capuçon.[26] Beninese musician Angélique Kidjo sang a variation of the song Blewu by Bella Bellow, in homage to colonial troops.[27][28][28] Macron then delivered a speech in which he denounced nationalism as a "betrayal of patriotism", and warned of the resurgence of "old demons".[29][24] The European Union Youth Orchestra followed with a performance of Ravel's Bolero.[30]

The end of the service included a rekindling of the Tomb to the Unknown Soldier, where Macron also laid a wreath. The "Sonnerie aux morts" and a minute of silence, concluding with the "Cessez-le-feu" bugle call, marked the end of the ceremony.[31][19]

All international guests were invited immediately afterward to a luncheon at the Élysée, with their consorts gathering at the Palace of Versailles.[20][32] The inaugural Paris Peace Forum was opened at the Grande halle de la Villette in the afternoon, with Macron, Merkel and United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres giving remarks at its plenary session. Trump had notably opted to visit the Suresnes American Cemetery and Memorial at the same time, where he made an address before returning to the United States.[33][23]

Dignitaries

Over 120 foreign representatives, including 72 heads of state and government and members of several international organizations, attended the commemorations in Paris.[6][34][9] According to the French presidential office, only countries "which sent troops or workers to the European theaters of war" were invited to be represented.[35]

French government
Other French dignitaries
International

Present at the Arc de Triomphe ceremony unless stated otherwise.[36][37][38][18][39][40]

Heads of state and government, and members of royal houses
Other representatives
Ambassadors
  • Paulo César de Oliveira Campos, Ambassador of Brazil to France[56]
  • Jean Galiev [ru], Ambassador of Kazakhstan to France[citation needed]
  • Moin ul Haq, Ambassador of Pakistan to France[citation needed]
  • Çary Nyýazow, Ambassador of Turkmenistan to France[citation needed]
  • The Lord Llewellyn of Steep, Ambassador of the United Kingdom to France[53]
  • Nguyên Thiêp, Ambassador of Vietnam to France[citation needed]
International organizations

Other events

Military parade in Chambéry

On 4 November 2018, French President Emmanuel Macron and his spouse Brigitte Macron hosted German President Frank-Walter Steinmeier at the Strasbourg Cathedral, marking the official start of the week-long commemorative period in France. A concert was held in their presence, and the flags of France, Germany and the European Union were hoisted outside the cathedral.[57]

In the lead up to the centenary itself, Macron carried out a "memorial tour", visiting symbolic locations on the Western Front, which subsequently drew anger from voters over what the Financial Times described as his "perceived metropolitan disregard for their pocketbook concerns."[58] On 6 November, Macron announced that writer Maurice Genevoix, author of numerous books on the First World War, would be posthumously listed on the Panthéon in 2019, alongside 14 French civilians and soldiers who participated in the war.[59]

On 9 November, Macron and UK Prime Minister Theresa May jointly paid respects at the Thiepval Memorial in northern France. May also laid wreaths at the graves of John Parr and George Edwin Ellison, respectively the first and last British soldiers killed during the war, during a visit to the St Symphorien Military Cemetery in Belgium. Her wreaths were engraved with handwritten messages, invoking wartime poems to express gratitude to the dead for being "staunch to the end".[60]

At 11:00 CET on 11 November, bells across France rang simultaneously to mark a century since the armistice came into force, including at Notre-Dame de Paris and at churches in overseas territories of France.[61][62] The European Broadcasting Union organized a concert at the Royal Opera of Versailles with performances by the Vienna Philharmonic, entitled the "Concert for Peace."[63] During a concert in La Force, Dordogne, violinist Pierre Hamel from the Orchestre Colonne performed using a metal violin assembled by soldiers in the trenches.[64] A series of religious memorial services were organized for the day, including an international mass at Notre-Dame de Paris, conducted by Archbishop Michel Aupetit.[65]

Incidents and reactions

Marshal Pétain, when he led France during the Second World War, was complicit in profound crimes which were recognized, and the responsibility of the French state was recognized. [...] I forgive nothing, but I erase nothing from our history.

—Emmanuel Macron[66]

A separate planned tribute to Philippe Pétain, who served in the Battle of Verdun and later headed Nazi-aligned Vichy France, at the Hôtel des Invalides alongside other World War I marshals, was reported by French media in October 2018. In response, the office of the Élysée said it was not part of the official schedule and did not understand how Pétain "ended up" on the list of tributes.[67] Macron in particular described Pétain as a "great soldier", while remarking that he made "disastrous choices" during the Nazi occupation.[58] The incident led to backlash from French Jews, the opposition and on social media, ultimately resulting in the tribute's withdrawal.[68]

A planned visit by Trump to the Aisne-Marne American Cemetery and Memorial, scheduled for 10 November 2018, was cancelled due to what the White House termed "bad weather".[69] The decision was met with harsh criticism, particularly from former secretary of state John Kerry, former Obama national security advisor Ben Rhodes and British Conservative politician Nicholas Soames, a grandson of Winston Churchill.[70][71]

Three Femen members staged a protest at the Arc de Triomphe on the morning of 10 November welcoming "war criminals",[n 3] and were arrested by French police.[73][74] In a later statement, Femen listed Vladimir Putin, Donald Trump, Benjamin Netanyahu and Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan as examples of this description, along with Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman, who was not invited.[72] The motorcade carrying Trump to the Arc de Triomphe on the day of the ceremony passed by a topless woman who ran towards it and was quickly dragged out by French police; Femen later claimed responsibility.[75]

Anti-Trump demonstrations were held at the Place de la République in response to the US president's visit.[76]

The seating arrangement caused a major controversy in Serbia. As the Serbian army had a pivotal role in forcing both Bulgaria and Austria-Hungary out of the war, with Serbia itself having the most extensive casualties compared to its population number and a historical friendship with France, the positioning of Serbian president Aleksandar Vučić away from the frontline seating areas in place of representatives of countries which were on the opposing side in the war or didn't even exist as separate states at the time, was taken as an insult in Serbia.[77][78][79]

United Kingdom

10,000 torches were lit in the moat of the Tower of London, in an artistic installation entitled Beyond the Deepening Shadow which would repeat nightly until Armistice Day (11 November).[80] The Shrouds of the Somme, designed by artist Rob Heard and comprising 72,396 shrouded figures representing all servicemen from the British Commonwealth with no known grave, was laid out at the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park, being on display from 8 to 18 November 2018.[81][60]

In October 2018, the government of the Isle of Man announced a series of commemorative coins.[82] The BBC planned a week-long series of special programming across its platforms, as part of its World War I centenary season.[83] On 10 November, key members of the royal family, including Queen Elizabeth II, attended the annual Royal British Legion Festival of Remembrance at the Royal Albert Hall in London, which included performances by Sir Tom Jones and Sheridan Smith.[84][85]

Remembrance Sunday

The National Service of Remembrance for Wales at the Welsh National War Memorial
Members of the public during a service in Sheffield

As Remembrance Sunday in 2018 fell on 11 November, the National Service of Remembrance was held concurrently with other commemorative events in Europe. The service at the Cenotaph in London began at 11:00 GMT, with a two-minute silence being observed, after which the Prince of Wales then laid the first wreath on behalf of the Queen.[54][86] Thousands were able to pay respect to relatives and soldiers killed in the war during a march past the memorial.[87] Despite ongoing renovations, the Big Ben rang eleven times at 12:30 GMT.[88][89]

German President Frank-Walter Steinmeier was invited to attend as a special guest, becoming the first German leader to lay a wreath at the Cenotaph.[29] The invitation was reportedly planned as early as September 2018.[90] The Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport described his presence as "a symbol of the friendship that exists between the two countries today".[86] A memorial service was held in the evening at Westminster Abbey, which was attended by members of the royal family and Prime Minister Theresa May. During the service, Steinmeier read out a passage from 1 St John 4:7–11 in German.[29]

Similar events were held across the United Kingdom's constituent countries and Crown Dependencies. In Scotland, Princess Anne attended a service at Glasgow Cathedral, while First Minister Nicola Sturgeon and other officials laid wreaths.[91]

Other Commonwealth countries

Part of the crowd outside the Australian War Memorial prior to the 2018 Remembrance Day ceremony

In Australia, a Remembrance Day service was held at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra, alongside a national minute of silence in remembrance of Australian soldiers who fought and died in overseas conflicts. Prime Minister Scott Morrison addressed a crowd of more than 12,000 attending the ceremony. An extension of the Anzac Memorial in Sydney was opened to the public for the occasion.[92][93] In addition, over a thousand people attended a commemoration at the Australian National Memorial in the French town of Villers-Bretonneux.[92]

In New Zealand, a national service took place at the Pukeahu National War Memorial Park in Wellington, which was organized as part of the wider New Zealand WW100 commemorations. A 100-gun salute was held at the Wellington waterfront, and two minutes of silence were observed at 11:00 NZDT, followed by a cacophony of noise replicating how the public initially reacted to the news of the Armistice a century prior. Governor-General Dame Patsy Reddy and Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern gave speeches at the event.[94][95][96]

In India, a memorial service was held at the Delhi War Cemetery, where Indian and British delegates laid wreaths. Conservative MP Tom Tugendhat led the British delegation and was joined by Sir Dominic Asquith, British High Commissioner to India, and defence attaché Brigadier Mark Goldsack.[97] In a series of tweets, Prime Minister Narendra Modi paid tribute to Indian troops and pledged to "further an atmosphere of harmony and brotherhood".[98][99]

In Ghana, a luncheon was organized by the British High Commission and the Ghanaian government on the occasion of Remembrance Day. On the same day, President Nana Akufo-Addo and a group of ex-servicemen observed a two-minute silence.[100][101] Earlier, Akufo-Addo participated in a wreath-laying ceremony on 2 November at the Christiansborg War Cemetery in Accra, along with Prince Charles, his wife Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall, and Prince Edward, who were touring the country at the time.[102]

Ceremonies in Kenya and Zambia were scheduled for 25 November 2018; German forces fighting in Northern Rhodesia only received news of the armistice on 14 November 1918, and eventually surrendered later that month.[103][104] In Voi, the Commonwealth War Cemetery hosted a small ceremony, which was attended by British and German diplomats; a Kenyan army bugler played the Last Post during the ceremony, and wreaths were laid by a Kenyan general and some local and international visitors.[105] The Zambian government sponsored a centenary event in the town of Mbala organized by the national tourism agency, saying that attraction to the region would unlock the "tourism and investment potential of Northern Province".[104][106]

Commemorations were also held in Canada.[107]

Events in other locations

Commemorative services took place in Hong Kong, Myanmar, Romania, and Russia.[108][29]

Belgium

Special performance of the Last Post at the Menin Gate on the morning of 11 November

National commemorations were held in the capital of Brussels. In an address, King Philippe pledged to keep "the memory of those who sacrificed themselves for us and the values for which they fought", and to "engage together in building a world of peace." A dove and 11 pigeons were released during the memorial service.[109]

In Ypres, a series of tributes to Commonwealth veterans was attended by the Minister-President of Flanders, Geert Bourgeois.[110] The Last Post, traditionally performed nightly at the Menin Gate since 1928, was additionally played at 11:00 CET to mark the centenary.[110]

In Mons, celebrations were held marking the anniversary of Canadian troops taking over the city from the Germans, in the final leg of Canada's Hundred Days.[111][112] The Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) of Canada led a recreated Armistice parade through the city.[113]

Germany

Minuscule individual events were held, including a religious service at the Berlin Cathedral, and an exhibition showcasing works by 31 international artists representing countries involved in WWI peace negotiations.[n 4] Public memorization in modern Germany was muted, mainly owing to the defeat of the German Empire and the chronology of events resulting from the aftermath of the war.[114][115]

Hungary

To mark the centenary, the Hungarian National Bank released a series of collector coins on 16 October 2018, which included a silver variant with a face value of 10,000 HUF and a non-ferrous metal variant with a fifth (2,000 HUF) of the face value.[116]

Ireland

A service was organized at Glasnevin Cemetery in Dublin, and attended by President Michael D. Higgins, who was to be sworn in for a second term on the same day, along with representatives of at least 47 countries. The Last Post was played during the ceremony.[117][118]

Italy

Italian President Sergio Mattarella and key political figures attended a National Unity and Armed Forces Day ceremony in Trieste marking the centenary of the Armistice of Villa Giusti with Austria-Hungary. In a speech, Mattarella described the European Union as the "highest expression of a commitment to common good" to prevent future conflicts, and highlighted the history of antisemitism in the region.[119][120]

Luxembourg

A ceremony was held at the Gëlle Fra monument in the capital during the late afternoon, in the presence of Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg, and Grand Duchess Maria Teresa, as well as prime minister Xavier Bettel, who also paid tribute to war casualties.[121]

Poland

A scarf bearing the coat of arms and flag of Poland during a ceremony in Łódź

The date of the Armistice centenary coincided with festivities marking the Polish National Independence Day, and the centenary of the foundation of the Second Polish Republic.

Prominent politicians, including president Andrzej Duda and former prime minister Donald Tusk, attended ceremonies honouring Józef Piłsudski, the founding father of the Second Republic.[122] Over 200,000 people marched in the capital of Warsaw, including at an event led by Duda, prime minister Mateusz Morawiecki and leader of the ruling Law and Justice party Jarosław Kaczyński, coinciding with the annual Independence March.[123][124] The latter, organized by nationalist and far-right groups, was initially banned by Warsaw mayor Hanna Gronkiewicz-Waltz, before the aforementioned ban was overturned by a local court.[123][125]

Vatican City

In remarks made during a weekly Angelus address, Pope Francis appealed for a rejection of a "culture of war", quoting Benedict XV, who served as pope during the majority of the First World War, and reflecting on the occasion of St. Martin's Day, which also fell on 11 November. The bells at St. Peter's Basilica were tolled in the afternoon in unison with other church bells across Europe.[126]

United States

Poster for Veterans Day 2018, depicting a remembrance poppy

The National World War I Museum and Memorial in Kansas City, Missouri hosted a ceremony in which participants and relatives of WWI veterans tolled a "bell of peace" and laid wreaths in memory of those killed in the war.[127] The Washington National Cathedral organized a commemorative worship service.[128]

President Donald Trump proposed that a military parade at the Capitol be held on 10 November to mark the centenary, in admiration of France's Bastille Day military parade (which Trump attended as a guest in 2017). However, Trump cancelled the proposed event in August 2018 over cost concerns, with estimates that the parade would have cost as much as US$92 million.[129][130][131]

See also

Notes and references

Notes

  1. ^ a b Present only at the Musée d'Orsay reception.
  2. ^ Ali Bongo, the then-President of Gabon, was unable to attend as initially scheduled after suffering a stroke.[46]
  3. ^ In a statement, Femen specifically listed Vladimir Putin, Donald Trump, Benjamin Netanyahu and Recep Tayyip Erdoğan as examples of this description, along with Mohammed bin Salman, who was not invited.[72]
  4. ^ Twenty-nine signatory states of the Treaty of Versailles and Paris Peace Conference, as well as Russia and Ukraine.

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  129. ^ Macias 2018.
  130. ^ Campbell & Chappell 2018.
  131. ^ Eilperin, Dawsey & Lamothe 2019.

Works cited

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Websites

  • Armistice between the Allied Governments and Germany . 11 November 1918 – via Wikisource.
  • "Today in History - November 11". Library of Congress. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
  • "First World War centenary programme 2014-2018 - Guide to engaging local communities" (PDF). gov.uk. Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Retrieved 5 January 2024.
  • Macron, Emmanuel (3 July 2018), Forum de Paris sur la Paix : rendez-vous le 11 novembre 2018 (in French), retrieved 4 October 2022 – via YouTube
  • "£19 million package to mark armistice centenary". gov.uk. 7 November 2018. Retrieved 4 February 2024.
  • "BBC to mark Remembrance Week 2018 and the end of the First World War centenary". Media Centre. BBC. 30 October 2018. Archived from the original on 25 January 2019. Retrieved 14 January 2024.
  • "Collector coins to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the Armistice Ending World War I". Magyar Nemzeti Bank. Retrieved 22 September 2022.
  • "First World War centenary coins officially launched". Isle of Man Government. 31 October 2018. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
  • "Commémoration du centenaire de l' Armistice du 11 novembre 2018 à Wallis". Les services de l'État à Wallis et Futuna (in French). Archived from the original on 22 July 2019. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
  • "Yo-Yo Ma and Renaud Capuçon mark Armistice with Ravel". The Strad. 12 November 2018. Retrieved 12 January 2024.
  • "Paris Armistice Day 100 Years Anniversary Ceremony". EUYO. European Union Youth Orchestra. Archived from the original on 16 October 2021. Retrieved 15 February 2021.
  • Modi, Narendra [@narendramodi] (11 November 2018). "Today, as we mark one hundred years since the end of the horrific First World War, we reiterate our commitment towards world peace and pledge to work to further an atmosphere of harmony and brotherhood so that the trail of death and destruction caused by wars does not occur" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
  • "EBU Members unite to commemorate 100 years since end of First World War". European Broadcasting Union. 10 October 2018. Retrieved 14 October 2022.
  • "WWI Commemorative Service". Washington National Cathedral. Archived from the original on 11 August 2020. Retrieved 1 April 2021.
  • "Commemoration of the Armistice of 11 November 1918: more than 60 Heads of State and Government to meet in Paris". France Diplomacy. Retrieved 14 March 2021.
  • "Big Ben to ring for Remembrance Sunday and Armistice Centenary". UK Parliament. 8 November 2018. Retrieved 17 April 2021.
  • Nery, John [@jnery_newsstand] (11 November 2018). "Here's the list of heads of state or government or int'l organization attending the International Ceremony for the Centenary of the 1918 Armistice at the Arc de Triomphe #ArmisticeDay100 (list as of November 9)" (Tweet). Archived from the original on 7 June 2022. Retrieved 7 June 2022 – via Twitter.
  • "Předseda vlády se v Paříži zúčastnil mírových oslav a zdůraznil nutnost pomoci chudým zemím" [The Prime Minister took part in the peace celebrations in Paris and emphasized the need to help poor countries]. Vláda ČR (in Czech). 11 November 2018. Retrieved 22 September 2022.
  • "SA attends WWI centenary commemorations". South African Government News Agency. 9 November 2018. Archived from the original on 9 November 2018. Retrieved 2 June 2021.
  • "Welcome War Criminals". FEMEN. 10 November 2018. Retrieved 16 June 2022.

Books and journals

  • Strachan, H. (2001). The First World War: To Arms. Vol. I. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926191-8.
  • Salter, Arthur (1921). Allied Shipping Control: An Experiment in International Administration. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Retrieved 27 February 2024.
  • Edmonds, James Edward; Bayliss, Gwyn M. (1987) [1944]. Bayliss, Gwyn M (ed.). The Occupation of the Rhineland 1918–29. History of the Great War. London: HMSO. ISBN 978-0-11-290454-0. OCLC 59076445.

Further reading

  • S. Sumartojo, Experiencing 11 November 2018 – Commemoration and the First World War Centenary, Routledge, 2020. ISBN 1-350-15531-4.

External links

Related media at Wikimedia Commons:

  • November 11th ceremony in Paris in 2018
  • Remembrance Sunday 2018
Official websites and documents
  • Centenary of Armistice – Australian War Memorial
  • A National Service of Thanksgiving to mark the Centenary of the Armistice – Westminster Abbey, London
Videos
  • Remembrance Day National Ceremony 2018 – Australian War Memorial (via YouTube)
  • Cérémonie internationale du Centenaire de l'Armistice du 11 novembre 1918 à l'Arc de triomphe – Présidence de la République (via Dailymotion)
  • Armistice Centenary National Ceremony – WW100 New Zealand (via YouTube)
Others
  • AP Was There: Armistice brings World War I to an end – Associated Press
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