Eclipses in mythology and culture

Eclipses of the Sun and of the Moon have been described by nearly every culture. While eclipses hundreds of years into the future may now be predicted with high accuracy, traditional difficulty in predicting their occurrence and a lack of an astronomical explanation led to them being attributed to supernatural causes or regarded as bad omens.

Religious and cultural practices

While solar and lunar eclipses are today understood astronomically as one celestial body shadowing another, their appearance from Earth does not intuitively belie a similar cause for each.^[1] Mark Littmann, Fred Espenak, and Ken Willcox classified solar eclipse mythologies into four distinct genres:^[2]

• A celestial being (usually a monster) attempts to destroy the Sun.
• The Sun fights with its lover the Moon.
• The Sun and Moon make love and discreetly hide themselves in darkness.
• The Sun god grows angry, sad, sick, or neglectful.

Abrahamic religions

Judaism

In the Talmud, solar eclipses are described as ill omens^[3] and several events in the Hebrew Bible are said to have occurred during eclipses.^[4] However, Judaism at large has been accepting of the modern astronomical explanation of eclipses and today many rabbis consider eclipses to be reminders of divinity and a time for prayer and introspection.^[5] In the monotheistic Abrahamic tradition, the absence of any divine beings besides God precludes deifying the Sun and Moon as individual beings to be consumed or in combat.

Christianity

By the time Christianity emerged, the periodicity of lunar eclipses had already been deduced by Neo-Babylonian astronomers in the sixth century BCE.^[6] By the first century BC, Greek astronomers had devised a method to predict solar eclipses, as evidenced by the mechanical computer known as the Antikythera mechanism.^[7] Notably, the calculations made by the Antikythera mechanism indicate an understanding of the Sun, Moon, and Earth as spherical celestial bodies,^[8] a cosmology also held by Greeks since Aristotle.^[9] The astronomical understanding of eclipses was thus well understood throughout the social milieu of Ancient Near East in which Christianity developed, and so its scriptures leave little mention of such phenomena. The New Testament describes the sky as darkening for hours during the crucifixion of Jesus.^[10] As the event's lengthy duration and occurrence on the day of a full moon made it clear to contemporary believers that it could not be an eclipse, early Christians interpreted this as an omen and sign of Jesus's divinity.^[11] In 12th-century Christian Europe, eclipses were thus connected to earthly rule, where the deaths of Charlemagne and Henry I were preceded by solar and lunar eclipses.^[12] Saints were often also connected with eclipses, with a solar eclipse at their death a sign of their holiness.^[13] Christian eschatology makes mention of eclipse-like phenomena, where Revelation 6:12 describes how "the sun became black as sackcloth, the full moon became like blood."^[14] Some modern Christians thus consider eclipses to portend the Second Coming, although this remains a minority view.^[15]

Islam

As with Christianity, Islam developed in a society that had already begun to accept the astronomical understanding of the solar system and its explanation for eclipses. Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world was well-developed, and contributions included Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf ibn Maṭar's translation of Ptolemy's Almagest, in which he silently corrected Ptolemy's method for predicting eclipses.^[16]

Theologically, the Quran explicitly rejects notions of the sun and moon's divinity:

Do not prostrate to the sun or the moon, but prostrate to Allah, Who created them ˹all˺

— Surah Fussilat 41:37

In one hadith, Muhammad objects to followers' treatment of an eclipse as an omen and states that eclipses have no bearing on earthly life and death:

We were with Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) when the sun eclipsed. Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) stood up dragging his cloak till he entered the Mosque. He led us in a two-rak`at prayer till the sun (eclipse) had cleared. Then the Prophet (p.b.u.h) said, "The sun and the moon do not eclipse because of someone's death. So whenever you see these eclipses pray and invoke (Allah) till the eclipse is over."

— Sahih al-Bukhari 1040

Because Muhammad instructed his followers to pray during eclipses as reminders of God's power, many Muslims today consider it sunnah to conduct a special prayer during solar eclipses, known as salat al-kusuf.^[17] With modern eclipse prediction techniques, Muslim congregations today announce solar eclipse prayers in advance^[18][19] as Islam places a great theological weight on communal prayer.^[20]

Hindu mythology

Eclipses, known in Sanskrit as grahana (Sanskrit: ग्रहणं, romanized: Grahaṇam, lit. 'Eclipse') are regarded to be noteworthy phenomena in Hinduism, and legends involving their origin and purpose are featured in Hindu mythology. The celestial gods Rahu and Ketu swallow the sun and moon, respectively, and are thus responsible for solar and lunar eclipses.^[21][22]

Hindus generally believe that a grahana is an ill-omen, and undertake certain activities before, during, or after its onset. Before a solar eclipse, fasting is sometimes practiced for up to six hours prior to the phenomenon. Food is often prepared only after the passing of the eclipse, and conventions regarding consuming meals at given hours in the context of the event are prescribed in the Kurma Purana.^[23] During the first and the final phases of an eclipse, a practicing Hindu might ritually bathe to cleanse oneself, as well as offer prayers to one's ancestors. Pilgrimage sites situated adjacent to a river throng with devotees during the onset of a grahana in some regions.^[24] Pregnant women are considered to be especially at risk to the effects of an eclipse, and are expected to adhere more strictly to religious bans during the phenomenon to prevent birth deformities in their children.^[25] It is regarded to be an ill-omen to be born during an eclipse, and Brahmins are often called upon to ritually bless such an individual. On the other hand, a grahana is considered to be an auspicious time to practice chanting mantras that are believed to ward against evil.^[26]

Native American traditions

The Indigenous peoples of the Americas have very diverse cultural practices and beliefs about eclipses.

Maya

Since the sixteenth century, Western scholars have been interested in "eclipse glyphs" recorded by the Maya civilization in the Dresden Codex, thought by historians to be predictions of solar and lunar eclipses.^[27] As there is no evidence for Maya understanding of heliocentrism or celestial orbits, it is likely that such eclipse predictions were made entirely from observed periodicity.^[28] However, some scholars argue that the glyphs in the Mayan codices refer to skies darkened from heavy rainfall, and not to eclipses.^[29]

Aztec

In Eduard Seler's analysis of the Codex Vaticanus B, he argues that in Aztec mythology solar eclipses occurred when the jaguar god Tepēyōllōtl would consume the sun and threaten to swallow it completely.^[30] While the Aztec society did not survive European colonization of the Americas, a passage from the Florentine Codex by friar and ethnographer Bernardino de Sahagún gives an account of a solar eclipse:

Then there were a tumult and disorder. All were disquieted, unnerved, frightened. There was weeping. The common folk raised a cry, lifting their voices, making a great din, calling out, shrieking. There was shouting everywhere. People of light complexion were slain [as sacrifices]; captives were killed. All offered their blood; they drew straws through the lobes of their ears, which had been pierced. And in all the temples there was the singing of fitting chants; there was an uproar; there were war cries. It was thus said: "If the eclipse of the sun is complete, it will be dark forever! The demons of darkness will come down; they will eat men!"

— de Sahagún 1950, p. 2

In contrast, there is no record of lunar eclipses in Aztec mythology or recordkeeping, as noted by an observer who wrote in the Codex Telleriano-Remensis about a lunar eclipse in 1510.^[31] Even the idea of accurate recordkeeping was not necessarily a priority for the Aztecs. Their records of solar eclipses, when present, are tied directly to historic events; thus, it is likely that they chose to record such events only when they appeared to coincide with social or political events.^[32]

Navajo

Navajo people consider the time during an eclipse to be a sacred moment of renewal, and refrain from all activities including eating and drinking.^[33] During an eclipse, the Sun or Moon is believed to be dying and reborn. Members of the nation should be silent in prayer and it is considered forbidden to look anywhere except down on the ground. Before modern eclipse prediction methods, Navajo people believed they could predict oncoming eclipses through their traditional songs.^[34] During the solar eclipse of October 14, 2023, the offices of the Navajo Nation, including its parks, were closed out of reverence for the eclipse.^[35]

Hopi

In contrast, the Hopi people, whose reservation today is an enclave of the Navajo Nation, consider eclipses to be a time of ceremony.^[36][37]

New religious movements

Some New Age and Wicca practitioners view solar and lunar eclipses as important spiritual events.^[38] As decentralized religious practices, there are no set prescribed rituals and adherents are free to explore their own exercises, which can include crystal charging,^[39] imbuing water with energy,^[40] and tarot card reading.^[41] For some Wicca practitioners, the spiritual nature of the solar eclipse of August 21, 2017 was an opportunity for political activism, casting spells against the administration of Donald Trump.^[42]

Norse mythology

In Norse mythology, it is believed that there is a wolf by the name of Fenrir that is in constant pursuit of the Sun, his consumption of the Sun would be the trigger of Ragnarök.^[43] Historians consider it likely that the Golden Horns of Gallehus, with their eschatological iconography, were made in response a lunar eclipse of November 4, 412 and a solar eclipse of April 16, 413.^[44]

Other Norse tribes believe that there are two wolves by the names of Sköll and Hati that are in pursuit of the Sun and the Moon, known by the names of Sol and Mani, and these tribes believe that an eclipse occurs when one of the wolves successfully eats either the Sun or the Moon.^{[45][better source needed]}

Modern practices

Eclipse chasing

A dedicated group of eclipse chasers have pursued the observation of solar eclipses when they occur around Earth.^[46] A person who chases eclipses is known as an umbraphile, meaning shadow lover.^[47] Umbraphiles travel for eclipses and use various tools to help view the sun including solar viewing glasses, also known as eclipse glasses, as well as telescopes.^[48]

See also

• Solar eclipse
• Lunar eclipse
• Lists of solar eclipses
• Lists of lunar eclipses
• List of films featuring eclipses
• Apollo–Soyuz: First joint U.S.–Soviet space flight. Mission included an arranged eclipse of the Sun by the Apollo module to allow instruments on the Soyuz to take photographs of the solar corona.
• Eclipse chasing: Travel to eclipse locations for study and enjoyment
• Occultation: Generic term for occlusion of an object by another object that passes between it and the observer, thus revealing (for example) the presence of an exoplanet orbiting a distant star by eclipsing it as seen from Earth
• Solar eclipses in fiction
• Solar eclipses on the Moon: Eclipse of the Sun by planet Earth, as seen from the Moon
  • Lunar eclipse: Solar eclipse of the Moon, as seen from Earth; the shadow cast on the Moon by that eclipse
• Transit of Venus: Passage of the planet Venus between the Sun and Earth, as seen from Earth. Technically a partial eclipse.
• Transit of Deimos from Mars: Passage of the Martian moon Deimos between the Sun and Mars, as seen from Mars
• Transit of Phobos from Mars: Passage of the Martian moon Phobos between the Sun and Mars, as seen from Mars

Notes

References

Historic primary sources

Books and academic journals

Newspapers and magazines

Web sources

Internal structureAtmosphere

Photosphere	Supergranulation Granule Faculae Sunspot Ellerman bomb
Chromosphere	Plage Spicule Moreton wave
Corona	Transition region Coronal hole Coronal loop Coronal mass ejection Nanoflare Prominence Helmet streamer Supra-arcade downflows Alfvén surface

VariationHeliosphereRelatedSpectral classExploration