WikiMini

Greater Somalia

Greater Somalia, also known as Greater Somaliland[1] (Somali: Soomaaliweyn; Arabic: الصومال الكبرى, romanized: al-Sūmāl al-Kubrā), is the geographic location comprising the regions in the Horn of Africa in which ethnic Somalis live and have historically inhabited.[2][3]

Historically ethnic Somali inhabited territory roughly corresponding to Greater Somalia

During the Scramble for Africa at the end of the 19th century, Somali-inhabited territories were partitioned between imperial powers. The unification of these territories became a focal objective of an independent Somalia. Referred to as "Greater Somalia," these regions, at the outset of Somali independence, encompassed British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland, which had successfully merged into a single nation in 1960. French Somaliland, the Northern Frontier District (NFD) in Kenya, and the Ogaden region in Ethiopia were placed under the control of neighboring states despite the pre-independence unification efforts of Somali nationalists.

The post-independence governments of the Somali Republic (1960–1969) and the Somali Democratic Republic (1969–1991) expended significant effort towards the unification of the NFD and French Somaliland with Somalia; however, their primary focus was the Ogaden region, which had been occupied by Ethiopia since Menelik's invasions in the 1890s.[4] From 1960 onwards, Somalis in Ethiopia and Kenya seeking self-determination have waged several insurgencies with the support of neighbouring Somalia, escalating into several major interstate conflicts including the Ogaden War in Ethiopia and the Shifta War in Kenya.[1][5]

However, following the breakout of the Somali Civil War and the splintering of Somalia into various autonomous polities, the concept of Greater Somalia has seen a sharp decline in support, with some Somali diaspora communities advocating for autonomy or secession rather than a fully-fledged union.[6][7][8]

History

[edit]
Part of a series on the
History of Somalia
A 16th century map of Somalia by Jan Huyghen
Prehistory
Ancient
(c. 1st century)
Middle Ages
Early modern
flag Somalia portal
CIA map of the greater Somali territory across the Horn

Since the early 20th century, the vision of Greater Somalia has taken shape, aiming to unite all Somali-inhabited regions in the Horn of Africa into a single nation. This concept, known as Pan-Somalism, seeks to consolidate these territories into one cohesive Somali state. The pursuit of this ideal has fueled conflicts, notably Somalia’s role in the Ogaden War with Ethiopia over the Somali Region and its support for Somali insurgents against Kenya. In 1946, the Somali Youth League proposed Harar as the future capital of Greater Somalia, dispatching delegates to the United Nations office in Mogadishu to advocate for this vision.[9]

Colonialism

[edit]

The colonisation of Somali territories during the Scramble for Africa in the late 19th and early 20th centuries involved multiple European powers and the Ethiopian Empire, driven by strategic and economic interests. The United Kingdom, France, and the Kingdom of Italy were the primary colonial powers vying for control of Somali-inhabited regions, motivated mainly by the need for trade routes and geopolitical dominance.[10][11]

Britain established a protectorate in northern Somalia (modern-day Somaliland) by signing treaties with the local Isaaq clan between 1884 and 1886, guaranteeing nominal independence but controlling trade and order at ports like Berbera.[12] France developed Djibouti as a coaling station, formalising French Somaliland in 1884, which remained a colony until 1977 when it later became the Republic of Djibouti. Italy also acquired southern Somali territories, establishing Italian Somaliland by 1889.[13] Ethiopia, during Menelik II's conquests concurrently expanded into Somali territories, notably the Ogaden region. The Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1897 granted Ethiopia the Ogaden and the Haud regions.[14]

Early 20th century portrait made by Douglas James Jardine of Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan

The Dervish Movement however, led by Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, was a significant anti-colonial movement that united various Somali clans, repelled British and Ethiopian forces multiple times, and created a proto-state.[15][16] The Dervish movement was defeated in 1920 by the British Royal Air Force launching a combined air and ground campaign, using 12 Airco DH.9A aircraft—the first major aerial bombardment in Africa.[17] The Banadir Resistance around Merca, also opposed European colonisation, marking one of Africa’s longest anti-colonial struggles.[18] Although defeated, the resistance foster early Somali nationalism and resentment against colonial borders, laying ideological groundwork for Greater Somalia.[19]

During World War I, the British government entered into a clandestine agreement with Italy, promising to transfer control of approximately 94,050 square kilometers of the Jubaland protectorate, a region located in what is now southwestern Somalia. The deal was formalised through diplomatic negotiations, and Italy, in return for joining the Allied powers, was granted this substantial portion of land. The agreement was fulfilled after the war, and in 1924, Britain officially ceded Trans-Juba to Italy, transferring sovereignty over the region as stipulated in the wartime pact.[20][21] Britain retained control of the southern half of the partitioned Jubaland territory, which was later merged into the Northern Frontier District (NFD).[20]

The Majeerteen Sultanate and the Sultanate of Hobyo, two prominent Somali polities, were also gradually subdued by Italian colonial forces in the 1920s as part of Italy's efforts to consolidate control over Italian Somaliland.[22] The process involved a combination of military campaigns, coastal bombardments, naval blockades, and political maneuvering, culminating in the full incorporation of both sultanates by late 1927.[23]

Over the next few years, Britain and Italy solidified control over their respective Somalilands, while France governed Djibouti. Somali-inhabited areas in the Northern Frontier District and the Ogaden region remained under foreign rule.[24] During this time, Somali clans faced considerable economic marginalisation and restricted movement due to colonial boundaries, fueling discontent.[25] They were largely excluded from administrative roles, with the colonial authorities favoring European settlers or imported labor, which limited political influence and economic opportunities for them. Additionally, colonial education and economic systems were designed to serve the colonisers’ needs, offering minimal benefits to Somalis and eroding their cultural practices.[26]

In December 1934, a significant clash known as the Welwal Incident occurred in Welwal, a location in what is now the Dollo Zone of Ethiopia’s Somali Region.[27] This event marked a critical escalation that ignited the Second Italo-Ethiopian War and paved the way for Italy’s occupation of Ethiopia. The incident arose from a dispute over the poorly defined border between Ethiopia and Italian Somaliland. Britain and Ethiopia had established a joint boundary commission to clarify the Somali-Ethiopia border. However, the commission’s work was incomplete, and disagreements persisted, which left the region’s status ambiguous.[28]

Italy launched a massive military campaign, employing superior weaponry, including air forces and chemical weapons, against Ethiopia’s less-equipped army. By May 1936, Italian forces had captured Addis Ababa, leading to the occupation of Ethiopia and the proclamation of Italian East Africa, which incorporated Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Italian Somaliland.[29] Conscripted dubats were dispatched throughout the war by Italy[30] who also promoted and initiated the idea of "Greater Somalia", constituting Somali settled territories. By September 1940, Benito Mussolini declared the formation of Greater Somalia into the Italian Empire.[31][32]

During the early stages of World War II, Italian forces invaded British Somaliland, expelling the British.[33] Benito Mussolini annexed the region to Italian East Africa, also incorporating areas such as Moyale near Jubaland and northern Kenya, along with parts of French Somaliland’s southern borders. In 1940, Mussolini boasted to a group of Somalis in Rome that with the conquest of British Somaliland, nearly all Somali lands were united, fulfilling their dream of a union of all Somalis.[34]

“The fires of nationalism among the Somalis were constantly stoked throughout the colonial period, not only by Somali nationalists but also by various colonial powers who through words and deeds seemed to legitimize the concept of "Greater Somalia." Mussolini, for example, saw "La Grande Somalia" as the "jewel" of Italian East Africa, thus justifying Italy's invasion of Ethiopia and the liberation of the Somalis.”[35]

— E. J. Keller, Revolutionary Ethiopia: From Empire to People's Republic

Sultan Olol Dinle (third from right) and his delegation, in Benito Mussolini's Italy, during the festivities of Adolf Hitler's visit to Rome, 1938

Indeed, the Italian conquest of British Somaliland led to the expelling of the British[36] although the British retained administration of most of the Northern Frontier District.[37] The Italians even made a tentative attempt to occupy French Somaliland in the summer of 1940.[37]

However the British regained control of British Somaliland in the spring of 1941, and conquered Italian Somaliland and the Somali Region. In 1945, after WWII had ended, the Potsdam Conference was held, where the Allied powers decided to not return Italian Somaliland to Italy.[36] The UN opted instead in 1949 to grant Italy trusteeship of Italian Somaliland for a period of ten years, after which the region would become independent.[38]

Meanwhile, in 1948, under pressure from World War II allies and to the dismay of Somalis,[36] the British "returned" the Haud (an important Somali grazing area that was presumably "protected" by British treaties with the Somalis in 1884 and 1886) and the Ogaden Region to Ethiopia, based on the Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty in which the British ceded Somali territory to Menelik II in exchange for his help fighting against the Somali clans.[39] Britain included the proviso that the Somali residents would retain their autonomy. Regardless, Ethiopia immediately claimed sovereignty over the Haud region.[38] This prompted an unsuccessful bid by Britain in 1956 to buy back the Somali lands that it had turned over.[38]

In 1958, the UN Trusteeship Council established an arbitration tribunal to resolve the territorial dispute between Ethiopia and Somalia but the effort proved ineffective. The Somalis consistently rejected the 1897 Anglo-Ethiopian delimitation and refused to recognise its legal validity. Growing discontent fuelled demands to liberate the whole country and unify Greater Somalia, which further challenged the legitimacy of the 1897 Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement.[40][41]

Britain also granted administration of the Northern Frontier District to Kenyan nationalists. This was despite a 1962 commission report showing 86% of the Somalis in Kenya favouring secession and joining the newly formed Somali Republic.[42] It was an informal plebiscite demonstrating the overwhelming desire of the region's population to join the newly formed Somali Republic.[43][44]

Post-colonialism

[edit]
A socialist poster from the Somali Democratic Republic showing Somali Region and the rest of Greater Somalia unified as one country

After Somalia’s independence in 1960, successive governments launched a campaign to reclaim what they termed "lost territories," raising the issue with regional and international bodies such as the United Nations.[45] Somali administrations sought to unify these regions under the Somali Republic to realise the vision of Greater Somalia. Tensions between Ethiopia and Somalia escalated, drawing international attention. In February 1964, the Ethiopian-Somali Border War erupted along their shared border. Sudan mediated through the Organisation of African Unity, and in the same year, ministers from both nations met in Khartoum, agreeing to a ceasefire and a 15-kilometer military withdrawal on both sides.[46]

The newly formed Somali government and army had felt pressured and obliged to respond to what Somali citizens widely perceived as oppression of their brethren by an Ethiopian military occupation. In a bid to control the population of the region during the 1963 Ogaden revolt, an Ethiopian Imperial Army division based out of Harar torched Somali villages and carried out mass killings of livestock. Watering holes were machine gunned by aircraft in order to control the pastoral Somalis by denying them access to water.[47]

After Kenya’s independence in 1963, the ethnic Somalis who were natives of the NFD, supported by the Somali Republic, launched the Shifta War to secede from Kenya and join Somalia. The term “shifta” (Swahili for “bandit”) was used by the Kenyans to delegitimise the insurgency.[48] The war ended with a ceasefire in 1967, facilitated by the Organisation of African Unity at the Arusha Conference, where Somalia’s Prime Minister Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal agreed to suspend hostilities.[49] However, the conflict left lasting grievances, with Somalis in Kenya still feeling targeted, marginalised and subjected to state suspicion.[50]

In 1966, the Ethiopian imperial government under Haile Salassie imposed martial law in the Ogaden and neighbouring Oromo regions,[51] followed by a number of harsh reprisals against local herders aiming to compel them to abandon their support for insurgents.[52][53] These measures included confiscation of property, arbitrary arrests, control of water points, and destruction of livestock.[54] In 1973, the Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF) was formed to mobilise local populations in the region.[55] Somalia backed the WSLF, the Somali Abo Liberation Front (SALF), and the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) to undermine Ethiopian forces and destabilize the country.[55]

Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF) militants in the Ogaden War

Between 1977 and 1978, Somalia and Ethiopia waged a war over control of the Ogaden region and its people. The Soviet Union, Cuba, and South Yemen supported Ethiopia’s Derg regime, led by Colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam, deploying nearly 100,000 troops equipped with modern weaponry. This combined force repelled Somali troops back to the border, ultimately leading to the weakening of the Mogadishu based government. In March 1978, President Siad Barre ordered the withdrawal of Somali forces from Ethiopia.[56][57]

After the war, an estimated 800,000 "Ethiopian Somalis" crossed the border into Somalia where they would be displaced as refugees. The defeat of the WSLF and Somali National Army did not result in the pacification of the Ogaden region.[58] The first major outflow of refugees numbering in the hundreds of thousands were also bombed during their exodus out of the country by the Ethiopian military.[59]

Djibouti gained its independence in 1977, but a referendum was held in 1958 on the eve of Somalia's independence in 1960 to decide whether or not to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favor of a continued association with France, largely due to a combined "yes" vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans. However, the majority of those who voted "no" were Somalis who were strongly in favor of joining a united Somalia as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later, and Hassan Gouled Aptidon, a Somali who campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, wound up as Djibouti's first president post-independence (1977–1991).[60]

In 1981, President Siad Barre visited Nairobi and during a meeting with Kenya’s president Daniel arap Moi, asserted that Somalia was suspending its claim to the Northern Frontier District.[61][62] Following renewed hostilities in the Ogaden region and the 1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War,[63][64] the two heads of state, Mengistu Haile Mariam and Siad Barre would meet in 1986 for the first time since the outbreak of the Ogaden War, leading to a peace treaty signed in 1988. Both parties agreed to respect each other’s territorial integrity.[65][66][67]

By the late 1980s, opposition groups, including the Somali National Movement (SNM) in the north, the United Somali Congress (USC) and the Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM), mobilised against the Siad Barre regime, fuelled by grievances over human rights abuses and economic collapse.[68] While Ethiopia, under President Mengistu, publicly maintained a stance of non-interference in the internal affairs of Somalia, evidence suggests it provided significant support to these groups, albeit covertly or indirectly.[69]

The SNM, primarily representing the Isaaq clan operated bases in Ethiopia’s border regions, particularly in Dire Dawa, from the early 1980s. Ethiopia allowed the SNM to establish military bases and conduct guerrilla raids into Somalia, providing logistical support and safe havens until the 1988 agreement, which scaled back overt assistance.[70][71]

For the USC, led by figures like Mohamed Farrah Aidid, Ethiopia’s support was direct, particularly in the late 1980s. Aidid, a former ambassador, defected and was invited by Mengistu to establish a USC military wing in Ethiopia.[72] From bases near the Ethiopia–Somalia border, Aidid directed operations to topple Barre’s regime.[73] Ethiopian security services also aided Aidid’s rise within the USC by detaining his rival, the interim chairman, at his request, allowing Mohamed Farrah Aidid to further consolidate power.[74][75]

The rebellions coupled with defections from Barre’s military, and dwindling foreign support, eroded Barre’s control, and while Ethiopia publicly was claiming neutrality, particularly after 1988, its actions proved otherwise—allowing rebel bases, providing logistical support, as well as aiding key figures.[76] By January 1991, USC rebel forces stormed Mogadishu, forcing Barre to flee, ending his 22-year rule and plunging the country into a protracted civil war as rival factions vied for power in the resulting vacuum.[77][78][79]

Somali Civil War

[edit]
Current military situation in Somalia as of December 2024

With the start of the Somali Civil War in 1991, the vision of uniting the various historically and predominantly Somali-inhabited areas of the Horn of Africa into a Greater Somalia was temporarily sidelined. Thousands of refugees have been granted political asylum in Kenya.[80] Talk of pan-Somali unification movements for the moment took a backseat, as the Republic splintered into a few autonomous smaller regional or clan-based governing zones. The northern regions of the Somali Republic, which previously was a British protectorate, declared independence as the Republic of Somaliland in 1991, shattering the dream of a greater Somalia now that the two regions that previously united split apart.[81] Though there was no unified government and thus no formal policy towards irredentism, individual militia groups clashed with Ethiopian troops between 1998 and 2000.[82][83]

In late 2006, Sheikh Hassan Dahir Aweys, head of the Islamic Courts Union (ICU) which then controlled much of southern Somalia, declared;

"We will leave no stone unturned to integrate our Somali brothers in Kenya and Ethiopia and restore their freedom to live with their ancestors in Somalia."[84]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Mohamed, Jama (Nov 2002). "Imperial Policies and Nationalism in The Decolonization of Somaliland, 1954–1960". The English Historical Review. 117 (474): 1177–1203. doi:10.1093/ehr/117.474.1177.
  2. ^ Barnes, Cedric (2007). "The Somali Youth League, Ethiopian Somalis and the Greater Somalia Idea, c. 1946–48". Journal of Eastern African Studies. 1 (2): 277–291. doi:10.1080/17531050701452564. ISSN 1753-1055.
  3. ^ Laitin, David D. (1976). "Somali Territorial Claims in International Perspective". Africa Today. 23 (2): 29–38. ISSN 0001-9887. JSTOR 4185590.
  4. ^ Abdi 2021, p. 69-74.
  5. ^ Lewis, I. M. (1989). "The Ogaden and the Fragility of Somali Segmentary Nationalism". African Affairs. 88 (353): 573–579. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098217. ISSN 0001-9909. JSTOR 723037.
  6. ^ Weitzberg 2017, Section: The Multiple Visions of Greater Somalia.
  7. ^ Weitzberg 2017, Section: The Creation of Homeland.
  8. ^ Bryden, Matt (2003). "The "Banana Test" : is Somaliland ready for recognition ?". Annales d'Éthiopie. 19 (1): 341–364. doi:10.3406/ethio.2003.1052.
  9. ^ Islamic Reform in Twentieth-Century Africa. Edinburgh University Press. 8 September 2016. ISBN 978-1-4744-1491-3.
  10. ^ Garibo-Peyró, Ana-Paz (2012), Ballesteros, Jesús; Fernández Ruiz-Gálvez, Encarnación; Talavera, Pedro (eds.), "Somalia: From the Errors of Colonialism to the Horrors of War", Globalization and Human Rights: Challenges and Answers from a European Perspective, Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice, vol. 13, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 113–140, doi:10.1007/978-94-007-4020-4_5, ISBN 978-94-007-4020-4
  11. ^ Sheik-Abdi, Abdi (1977). "Somali Nationalism: Its Origins and Future". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 15 (4): 657–665. doi:10.1017/S0022278X00002299. ISSN 1469-7777.
  12. ^ Mohamed, Jama (2002-11-01). "Imperial Policies and Nationalism in The Decolonization of Somaliland, 1954–1960". The English Historical Review. 117 (474): 1177–1203. doi:10.1093/ehr/117.474.1177. ISSN 0013-8266.
  13. ^ Bell, J. Franklin (1943). "Italy's African Empire". The Military Engineer. 35 (209): 114–119. ISSN 0026-3982. JSTOR 44605357.
  14. ^ Mohamed, Jama (2002-11-01). "Imperial Policies and Nationalism in The Decolonization of Somaliland, 1954–1960". The English Historical Review. 117 (474): 1177–1203. doi:10.1093/ehr/117.474.1177. ISSN 0013-8266.
  15. ^ Adam, Hussein M. (1995). "Islam and Politics in Somalia". Journal of Islamic Studies. 6 (2): 189–221. doi:10.1093/jis/6.2.189. ISSN 0955-2340. JSTOR 26195365.
  16. ^ Hess, Robert L. (1964). "The 'Mad Mullah' and Northern Somalia". The Journal of African History. 5 (3): 415–433. doi:10.1017/S0021853700005107. ISSN 1469-5138.
  17. ^ Hallion, Richard P. (2010-03-14). Strike From the Sky: The History of Battlefield Air Attack, 1910-1945. University of Alabama Press. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-8173-5657-6.
  18. ^ Ciisa-Salwe, Cabdisalaam M. (1996-01-01). The collapse of the Somali state: the impact of the colonial legacy. HAAN. p. 19. ISBN 9781874209270.
  19. ^ Uhlig, Siegbert (2006). Proceedings of the XVth International Conference of Ethiopian Studies, Hamburg, July 20-25, 2003. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-04799-9.
  20. ^ a b Osman, Mohamed Amin AH (1993). Somalia, proposals for the future. SPM. pp. 1–10.
  21. ^ Alex Thomson, "An Introduction to African Politics", 2 edition, (Routledge: 2000), p.23
  22. ^ Jalata, Asafa (2004). State Crises, Globalisation and National Movements in North-East Africa: The Horn's Dilemma. Routledge. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-134-27625-7.
  23. ^ Kaplan, Irving (1977). Area Handbook for Somalia. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 25.
  24. ^ Garibo-Peyró, Ana-Paz (2012), Ballesteros, Jesús; Fernández Ruiz-Gálvez, Encarnación; Talavera, Pedro (eds.), "Somalia: From the Errors of Colonialism to the Horrors of War", Globalization and Human Rights: Challenges and Answers from a European Perspective, Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice, vol. 13, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 113–140, doi:10.1007/978-94-007-4020-4_5, ISBN 978-94-007-4020-4
  25. ^ Lossi, Marcel (2011-11-21). The Failure System - The role of external actors in the Somali state collapse. GRIN Verlag. ISBN 978-3-656-06211-0.
  26. ^ Spring, Úrsula Oswald; Brauch, Hans Günter (2021-01-25). Decolonising Conflicts, Security, Peace, Gender, Environment and Development in the Anthropocene. Springer Nature. p. 335. ISBN 978-3-030-62316-6.
  27. ^ Spencer, John H. (3 August 2022). "The Italian-Ethiopian Dispute and the League of Nations". The American Journal of International Law. 31 (4): 614–641. doi:10.2307/2190673. JSTOR 2190673. S2CID 147253785.
  28. ^ "HISTORY OF SOMALIA". www.historyworld.net. Retrieved 2022-08-03.
  29. ^ Nicolle, David (2012-07-20). The Italian Invasion of Abyssinia 1935–36. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78200-161-4.
  30. ^ Fisher, Jonathan; Wilén, Nina (2022). African Peacekeeping. Cambridge University Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-1-108-49937-8.
  31. ^ Tripodi, Paolo. The Colonial Legacy in Somalia p. 104 (New York, 1999)
  32. ^ Lewis, I. M. (1963). "Pan-Africanism and Pan-Somalism". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 1 (2): 147–161. doi:10.1017/S0022278X00001038. ISSN 0022-278X. JSTOR 159026. S2CID 155073157.
  33. ^ Burdett, Charles (2001). "Memories of Italian East Africa". Journal of Romance Studies. 1 (3): 69–84. doi:10.3828/jrs.1.3.69.
  34. ^ Antonicelli, Franco. Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915 - 1945. p. 47
  35. ^ Keller, Edmond J. (1988). Revolutionary Ethiopia: From Empire to People's Republic. Indiana University Press. p. 156. ISBN 978-0-253-20646-6.
  36. ^ a b c Federal Research Division, Somalia: A Country Study, (Kessinger Publishing, LLC: 2004), p.38
  37. ^ a b Africa Watch Committee, Kenya: Taking Liberties, (Yale University Press: 1991), p.269
  38. ^ a b c Aristide R. Zolberg et al., Escape from Violence: Conflict and the Refugee Crisis in the Developing World, (Oxford University Press: 1992), p.106
  39. ^ David D. Laitin, Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience, (University Of Chicago Press: 1977), p.73
  40. ^ Farrell, Michael (2012-12-22). "Manufacturing territorial integrity with the International Court of Justice: the Somaliland-Puntland dispute and uti possidetis". Washington University Global Studies Law Review. 11 (4): 817–844.
  41. ^ Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (2003-02-25). Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 34. ISBN 979-8-216-22519-5.
  42. ^ Otunnu, Ogenga (1992). "Factors Affecting the Treatment of Kenyan-Somalis and Somali Refugees in Kenya: A Historical Overview". Refuge: Canada's Journal on Refugees / Refuge: Revue canadienne sur les réfugiés. 12 (5): 21–26. doi:10.25071/1920-7336.21678. ISSN 0229-5113. JSTOR 45412094.
  43. ^ https://core.ac.uk/reader/145055100 Colonial Policies and the Failure of Somali Secessionism in the Northern Frontier Dustrict of the Kenya Colony]
  44. ^ David D. Laitin, Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience, (University Of Chicago Press: 1977), p.75
  45. ^ Mohamed, J. (2002-11-01). "Imperial Policies and Nationalism in The Decolonization of Somaliland, 1954-1960". The English Historical Review. 117 (474): 1177–1203. doi:10.1093/ehr/117.474.1177. ISSN 0013-8266. Archived from the original on 2024-08-18.
  46. ^ Yagya, V. S. (1990). "Ethiopia and Its Neighbors: An Evolution of Relations, 1974-1989". Northeast African Studies. 12 (2/3): 107–116. ISSN 0740-9133. JSTOR 43660317.
  47. ^ Richard, Greenfield (1979). "An Historical Introduction to Refugee Problems in the Horn". Horn of Africa. 2 (4). Archived from the original on 2024-08-06.
  48. ^ Scharrer, Tabea (2018-07-03). ""Ambiguous citizens": Kenyan Somalis and the question of belonging". Journal of Eastern African Studies. 12 (3): 494–513. doi:10.1080/17531055.2018.1483864. hdl:21.11116/0000-0001-F64C-5. ISSN 1753-1055.
  49. ^ Khalif, Zeinabu Kabale; Oba, Gufu (2013-06-28). "'Gaafa dhaabaa - the period of stop': Narrating impacts of shifta insurgency on pastoral economy in northern Kenya, c. 1963 to 2007". Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice. 3 (1): 14. Bibcode:2013Pasto...3...14K. doi:10.1186/2041-7136-3-14. ISSN 2041-7136.
  50. ^ Carrier, Neil; Scharrer, Tabea (2019-07-11). Mobile Urbanity: Somali Presence in Urban East Africa. Berghahn Books. pp. 73–79. ISBN 978-1-78920-297-7.
  51. ^ Collective Punishment. Human Rights Watch. p. 16.
  52. ^ NA, NA (2016). Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia. Springer. p. 263. ISBN 978-1-137-11786-1.
  53. ^ Markakis, John (2011). Ethiopia: The Last Two Frontiers. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. pp. 151–152. ISBN 978-1-84701-033-9.
  54. ^ Lefkow, Leslie (2008-06-12). "Collective Punishment: War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity in the Ogaden area of Ethiopia's Somali Region". Human Rights Watch.
  55. ^ a b Vaughan, Sarah (2019), de Vries, Lotje; Englebert, Pierre; Schomerus, Mareike (eds.), "Ethiopia, Somalia, and the Ogaden: Still a Running Sore at the Heart of the Horn of Africa", Secessionism in African Politics: Aspiration, Grievance, Performance, Disenchantment, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 91–123, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-90206-7_4, ISBN 978-3-319-90206-7
  56. ^ "THE SECRET WARS TO CRUSH THE SOUTHEAST, 1978-84" (PDF). 3 August 2022.
  57. ^ Gleijeses, Piero (2013). Visions of Freedom: Havana, Washington, Pretoria and the Struggle for Southern Africa, 1976–1991. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-4696-0968-3.
  58. ^ Lewis, I. M. (1989). "The Ogaden and the Fragility of Somali Segmentary Nationalism". African Affairs. 88 (353): 573–579. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098217. ISSN 0001-9909. JSTOR 723037.
  59. ^ "Ogaden: The Land But Not the People". Horn of Africa. 4 (1): 42–45. 1981.
  60. ^ Lowell Barrington, After Independence: Making and Protecting the Nation in Postcolonial and Postcommunist States, (University of Michigan Press: 2006), p.115
  61. ^ Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (2003-02-25). Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Bloomsbury Publishing PLC. p. 132. ISBN 978-0-8108-6604-1.
  62. ^ Publications, Europa (2003). A Political Chronology of Africa. Routledge. p. 382. ISBN 978-1-135-35666-8.
  63. ^ Cowell, Alan; Times, Special To the New York (1982-10-08). "ETHIOPIAN DRIVE AGAINST SOMALIA BOGS DOWN". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2024-05-08.
  64. ^ Ethiopian-Somalian Border Clash 1982 Archived 2012-02-24 at the Wayback Machine OnWar.com
  65. ^ Collective Punishment. Human Rights Watch. p. 19.
  66. ^ Mark-Thiesen, Cassandra; Mihatsch, Moritz; Sikes, Michelle (2021-12-06). The Politics of Historical Memory and Commemoration in Africa. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-11-065549-0.
  67. ^ Prunier, Gérard (2021). The Country that Does Not Exist: A History of Somaliland. Oxford University Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-1-78738-203-9.
  68. ^ Salih, Mohamed Abdel Rahim Mohamed; Wohlgemuth, Lennart (1994). Crisis Management and the Politics of Reconciliation in Somalia: Statements from the Uppsala Forum, 17-19 January 1994. Nordic Africa Institute. pp. 22–24. ISBN 978-91-7106-356-4.
  69. ^ Bakonyi, Jutta; Guevara, Berit Bliesemann de (2014-06-11). A Micro-Sociology of Violence: Deciphering patterns and dynamics of collective violence. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-97796-4.
  70. ^ FitzGerald, V.; Stewart, F.; Venugopal, R. (2006-05-05). Globalization, Self-Determination and Violent Conflict. Springer. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-230-50237-6.
  71. ^ Dualeh, Hussein Ali (2002). Search for a New Somali Identity. H.A. Dualeh. pp. 63–66.
  72. ^ Richburg, Keith (8 September 1992). "AIDEED: WARLORD IN A FAMISHED LAND". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 22 May 2024. Retrieved 2 September 2022.
  73. ^ Laffin, John (1997). The World in Conflict: War Annual 8 - Contemporary Warfare Described and Analyzed. Brassey's. p. 179. ISBN 978-1-85753-216-6.
  74. ^ Clapham, Christopher S. (1998). African Guerrillas. James Currey. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-85255-815-7.
  75. ^ Africa, United States Congress House Committee on Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on (1993). Recent Developments in Somalia: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Africa of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, One Hundred Third Congress, First Session, February 17, 1993. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-16-041196-0.
  76. ^ Ciment, James (2015-03-27). Encyclopedia of Conflicts Since World War II. Routledge. p. 278. ISBN 978-1-317-47186-8.
  77. ^ Coyne, Christopher J. (2008). After War: The Political Economy of Exporting Democracy. Stanford University Press. p. 141. ISBN 978-0-8047-5439-2.
  78. ^ Mohamoud, Abdullah A. (2006). State Collapse and Post-conflict Development in Africa: The Case of Somalia (1960-2001). Purdue University Press. pp. 135–136. ISBN 978-1-55753-413-2.
  79. ^ Ciisa-Salwe, Cabdisalaam M. (1994). The Collapse of the Somali State: The Impact of the Colonial Legacy. A.M. Issa-Salwe. pp. 75–93. ISBN 978-1-874209-61-4.
  80. ^ de Montclos, Marc-Antoine Perouse (June 2008). "Humanitarian Aid, War, Exodus, and Reconstruction of Identities: A Case Study of Somali "Minority Refugees" in Kenya". Nationalism & Ethnic Politics. 14 (2). London: Taylor & Francis Ltd: 289–321. doi:10.1080/13537110802034985. ISSN 1557-2986. S2CID 220355243.
  81. ^ Mohamud Omar Ali; Koss Mohammed; Michael Walls. "Peace in Somaliland: An Indigenous Approach to State-Building" (PDF). Academy for Peace and Development. p. 12. Retrieved 2 June 2017. On 18 May 1991 at this second national meeting, the Somali National Movement Central Committee, with the support of a meeting of elders representing the major clans in the Northern Regions, declared the restoration of the Republic of Somaliland, covering the same area as that of the former British Somaliland Protectorate. The Burao conference also established a government for the Republic
  82. ^ Abdullahi, Abdi M. (2007). "The Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF): The Dilemma of Its Struggle in Ethiopia". Review of African Political Economy. 34 (113): 556–562. ISSN 0305-6244.
  83. ^ Ethiopia Archived 2011-07-27 at the Wayback Machine Middle East Desk
  84. ^ "Islamic Leader Urges Greater Somalia". Associated Press. 2006-11-18. Retrieved 2007-01-15.

Bibliography

[edit]