Sultanate of Rum

Turkish state in central Anatolia from 1077 to 1308
Sultanate of Rûm
Anadolu Selçuklu Devleti (Turkish)
سلجوقیان روم (Persian)
Saljūqiyān-i Rūm
1077–1308
Lion and Sun adopted by Kaykhusraw II of Rum
Lion and Sun adopted by Kaykhusraw II
Expansion of the Sultanate c. 1100–1240
  Sultanate of Rûm in 1100
  Conquered from the Danishmendids up to 1174
  Conquered from the Byzantines up to 1182
  Other conquests until 1243
Status
  • Independent sultanate (1077–1243)
  • Mongol vassal (1243–1256)
  • Ilkhanid vassal (1256–1308)
Capital
  • Nicaea (İznik)
  • (1077–1097)
  • Iconium (Konya)
  • (1097–1308)
  • Sebastia (Sivas)
  • (1211–1220)
Common languagesArabic (numismatics)[1]
Byzantine Greek (chancery, spoken)[2]
Old Anatolian Turkish (spoken)[3]
Persian (official, court, literature, spoken)[4][5]
Religion
Sunni Islam (official), Greek Orthodox (majority of population)[6]
GovernmentHereditary monarchy
Triarchy (1249–1254)
Diarchy (1257–1262)
Sultan 
• 1077–1086
Suleiman ibn Qutalmish (first)
• 1303–1308
Mesud II (last)
History 
1071
1077
1243
1308
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Byzantine Empire
Seljuk Empire
Danishmends
Mengujekids
Saltukids
Artuqids
Anatolian beyliks
Ilkhanate
Today part ofTurkey

The Sultanate of Rûm[a] was a culturally Turco-Persian Sunni Muslim state, established over conquered Byzantine territories and peoples (Rûm) of Anatolia by the Seljuk Turks following their entry into Anatolia after the Battle of Manzikert (1071). The name Rûm was a synonym for the medieval Eastern Roman Empire and its peoples, as it remains in modern Turkish.[8] The name is derived from the Aramaic (rhπmÈ) and Parthian (frwm) names for ancient Rome, via the Greek Ῥωμαῖοι (Romaioi).[9]

The Sultanate of Rûm seceded from the Great Seljuk Empire under Suleiman ibn Qutalmish in 1077, just six years after the Byzantine provinces of central Anatolia were conquered at the Battle of Manzikert (1071). It had its capital first at Nicaea and then at Iconium. It reached the height of its power during the late 12th and early 13th century, when it succeeded in taking key Byzantine ports on the Mediterranean and Black Sea coasts. In the east, the sultanate reached Lake Van. Trade through Anatolia from Iran and Central Asia was developed by a system of caravanserai. Especially strong trade ties with the Genoese formed during this period. The increased wealth allowed the sultanate to absorb other Turkish states that had been established following the conquest of Byzantine Anatolia: Danishmendids, House of Mengüjek, Saltukids, Artuqids.

The Seljuk sultans bore the brunt of the Crusades and eventually succumbed to the Mongol invasion at the 1243 Battle of Köse Dağ. For the remainder of the 13th century, the Seljuks acted as vassals of the Ilkhanate.[10] Their power disintegrated during the second half of the 13th century. The last of the Seljuk vassal sultans of the Ilkhanate, Mesud II, was murdered in 1308. The dissolution of the Seljuk state left behind many small Anatolian beyliks (Turkish principalities), among them that of the Ottoman dynasty, which eventually conquered the rest and reunited Anatolia to become the Ottoman Empire.

History

Establishment

Since the 1030s, migratory Turkish groups in search of pastureland had penetrated Byzantine borders into Anatolia.[11] In the 1070s, after the battle of Manzikert, the Seljuk commander Suleiman ibn Qutulmish, a distant cousin of Alp Arslan and a former contender for the throne of the Seljuk Empire, came to power in western Anatolia. Between 1075 and 1081, he gained control of the Byzantine cities of Nicaea (present-day İznik) and briefly also Nicomedia (present-day İzmit). Around two years later, he established a principality that, while initially a Byzantine vassal state, became increasingly independent after six to ten years.[12][13] Nevertheless, it seems that Suleiman was tasked by Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos in 1085 to reconquer Antioch and the former travelled there on a secret route, presumably guided by the Byzantines.[14]

Suleiman tried, unsuccessfully, to conquer Aleppo in 1086, and died in the Battle of Ain Salm, either fighting his enemies or by suicide.[15] In the aftermath, Suleiman's son Kilij Arslan I was imprisoned and a general of his, Abu'l-Qasim, took power in Nicaea.[16] Following the death of sultan Malik Shah in 1092, Kilij Arslan was released and established himself in his father's territories between 1092 and 1094, possibly with the approval of Malik Shah's son and successor Berkyaruq.[17]

Crusades

Kilij Arslan, although victorious in the People's Crusade of 1096, was defeated by soldiers of the First Crusade and driven back into south-central Anatolia, where he set up his state with its capital in Konya. He defeated three Crusade contingents in the Crusade of 1101. In 1107, he ventured east and captured Mosul but died the same year fighting Malik Shah's son, Mehmed Tapar. He was the first Muslim commander against the crusades.[citation needed]

Meanwhile, another Rum Seljuk, Malik Shah (not to be confused with the Seljuk sultan of the same name), captured Konya. In 1116 Kilij Arslan's son, Mesud I, took the city with the help of the Danishmends.[citation needed] Upon Mesud's death in 1156, the sultanate controlled nearly all of central Anatolia.

Horseman with Anatolian Seljuk equipement, in Varka and Golshah, mid-13th century miniature (detail), Konya, Sultanate of Rum.[18][19]

The Second Crusade was announced by Pope Eugene III, and was the first of the crusades to be led by European kings, namely Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany, with help from a number of other European nobles. The armies of the two kings marched separately across Europe. After crossing Byzantine territory into Anatolia, both armies were separately defeated by the Seljuk Turks. The main Western Christian source, Odo of Deuil, and Syriac Christian sources claim that the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos secretly hindered the crusaders' progress, particularly in Anatolia, where he is alleged to have deliberately ordered Turks to attack them. However, this alleged sabotage of the Crusade by the Byzantines was likely fabricated by Odo, who saw the Empire as an obstacle, and moreover Emperor Manuel had no political reason to do so. Louis and Conrad and the remnants of their armies reached Jerusalem and participated in 1148 in an ill-advised attack on Damascus, which ended in their retreat. In the end, the crusade in the east was a failure for the crusaders and a victory for the Muslims. It would ultimately have a key influence on the fall of Jerusalem and give rise to the Third Crusade at the end of the 12th century.

Mesud's son, Kilij Arslan II, is the first known Seljuk ruler who is known to have used the title of sultan[20] and captured the remaining territories around Sivas and Malatya from the last of the Danishmends. At the Battle of Myriokephalon in 1176, Kilij Arslan II also defeated a Byzantine army led by Manuel I Komnenos. Despite a temporary occupation of Konya in 1190 by the Holy Roman Empire's forces of the Third Crusade, the sultanate was quick to recover and consolidate its power.[21] During the last years of Kilij Arslan II's reign, the sultanate experienced a civil war with Kaykhusraw I fighting to retain control and losing to his brother Suleiman II in 1196.[21][22]

The Sultanate of Rûm and surrounding states, c. 1200
Gold coinage of Suleiman II of Rum, Konya, 597 H (1200-1201 CE)

Suleiman II rallied his vassal emirs and marched against Georgia, with an army of 150,000-400,000 and encamped in the Basiani valley. Tamar of Georgia quickly marshaled an army throughout her possessions and put it under command of her consort, David Soslan. Georgian troops under David Soslan made a sudden advance into Basiani and assailed the enemy's camp in 1203 or 1204. In a pitched battle, the Seljukid forces managed to roll back several attacks of the Georgians but were eventually overwhelmed and defeated. Loss of the sultan's banner to the Georgians resulted in a panic within the Seljuk ranks. Süleymanshah himself was wounded and withdrew to Erzurum. Both the Rum Seljuk and Georgian armies suffered heavy casualties, but coordinated flanking attacks won the battle for the Georgians.[23][better source needed]

Suleiman II died in 1204[24] and was succeeded by his son Kilij Arslan III, whose reign was unpopular.[24] Kaykhusraw I seized Konya in 1205 reestablishing his reign.[24] Under his rule and those of his two successors, Kaykaus I and Kayqubad I, Seljuk power in Anatolia reached its apogee. Kaykhusraw's most important achievement was the capture of the harbour of Attalia (Antalya) on the Mediterranean coast in 1207. His son Kaykaus captured Sinop[25] and made the Empire of Trebizond his vassal in 1214.[26] He also subjugated Cilician Armenia but in 1218 was forced to surrender the city of Aleppo, acquired from al-Kamil. Kayqubad continued to acquire lands along the Mediterranean coast from 1221 to 1225.[citation needed]

In the 1220s, he sent an expeditionary force across the Black Sea to Crimea.[27] In the east he defeated the Mengujekids and began to put pressure on the Artuqids.[citation needed]

Mongol conquest

Kaykhusraw II (1237–1246) began his reign by capturing the region around Diyarbakır, but in 1239 he had to face an uprising led by a popular preacher named Baba Ishak. After three years, when he had finally quelled the revolt, the Crimean foothold was lost and the state and the sultanate's army had weakened. It is in these conditions that he had to face a far more dangerous threat, that of the expanding Mongols. The forces of the Mongol Empire took Erzurum in 1242 and in 1243, the sultan was crushed by Baiju in the Battle of Köse Dağ (a mountain between the cities of Sivas and Erzincan), and the Seljuk Turks were forced to swear allegiance to the Mongols and became their vassals.[10] The sultan himself had fled to Antalya after the 1243 battle, where he died in 1246, his death starting a period of tripartite, and then dual, rule that lasted until 1260.

The Seljuk realm was divided among Kaykhusraw's three sons. The eldest, Kaykaus II (1246–1260), assumed the rule in the area west of the river Kızılırmak. His younger brothers, Kilij Arslan IV (1248–1265) and Kayqubad II (1249–1257), were set to rule the regions east of the river under Mongol administration. In October 1256, Bayju defeated Kaykaus II near Aksaray and all of Anatolia became officially subject to Möngke Khan. In 1260 Kaykaus II fled from Konya to Crimea where he died in 1279. Kilij Arslan IV was executed in 1265, and Kaykhusraw III (1265–1284) became the nominal ruler of all of Anatolia, with the tangible power exercised either by the Mongols or the sultan's influential regents.

Disintegration

The declining Sultanate of Rûm, vassal of the Mongols, and the emerging beyliks, c. 1300

The Seljuk state had started to split into small emirates (beyliks) that increasingly distanced themselves from both Mongol and Seljuk control. In 1277, responding to a call from Anatolia, the Mamluk Sultan Baibars raided Anatolia and defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Elbistan,[28] temporarily replacing them as the administrator of the Seljuk realm. But since the native forces who had called him to Anatolia did not manifest themselves for the defense of the land, he had to return to his home base in Egypt, and the Mongol administration was re-assumed, officially and severely. Also, the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia captured the Mediterranean coast from Selinos to Seleucia, as well as the cities of Marash and Behisni, from the Seljuk in the 1240s.

Near the end of his reign, Kaykhusraw III could claim direct sovereignty only over lands around Konya. Some of the beyliks (including the early Ottoman state) and Seljuk governors of Anatolia continued to recognize, albeit nominally, the supremacy of the sultan in Konya, delivering the khutbah in the name of the sultans in Konya in recognition of their sovereignty, and the sultans continued to call themselves Fahreddin, the Pride of Islam. When Kaykhusraw III was executed in 1284, the Seljuk dynasty suffered another blow from internal struggles which lasted until 1303 when the son of Kaykaus II, Mesud II, established himself as sultan in Kayseri. He was murdered in 1308 and his son Mesud III soon afterwards. A distant relative to the Seljuk dynasty momentarily installed himself as emir of Konya, but he was defeated and his lands conquered by the Karamanids in 1328. The sultanate's monetary sphere of influence lasted slightly longer and coins of Seljuk mint, generally considered to be of reliable value, continued to be used throughout the 14th century, once again, including by the Ottomans.

The comparative genealogy of the Sultanate of Rûm with their contemporary neighbors in Central Asia
Tuqaq Temur
Beg

Commander-in-chief
of the Oghuz army
Ma'munid rulers in Chorasmia
(r. 995-1117)
Seljuk Beg
The founder of
Seljuk dynasty
Altun Tash
(1017-1032)
Arslan Yabgu
Chief of Seljuk dynasty
Mikail ibn SeljukThe mother of
Toghrul I, Chaghri,
Ibrahim & Artash
Yûsuf Inal[29][30]Yûnus[31][32]Mûsâ[33](İnanç)YabguHarun
(r. 1032-1035)
Ismail Khandan
(r. 1035-1041)
Rasūl Tagīn[34]Qutalmish[35]
Father of the founder of Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate
Toghrul Beg
First sultan of
the Seljuks

(r. 1037–1063)
Chaghri Beg
Co-ruler of
the Seljuk dynasty
Ibrahim Inal[35]Artash Inal[36]Abu Ali Hasan Yabgu[36][35]Yûsuf,[37] Kara Arslan, Abu Bakr, Umar, Bori & DawlatshahShah Malik
(r. 1041-1042)
Mānsūr[34][34]Suleyman I Shah of Rûm[38]
(r. 1077–1086)
Alp Ilig and Dawlat[34]Suleiman[39]
(r. 1063)[40]
Alp Arslan
(r. 1063–1072)
Kavurt[41] Beg
(r. 1048–1073)
Kirman Seljuks
Seljuk rule
in Khwarazm
(r. 1042-1077)
Abu'l-Qasim (İznik)
(r. 1086-1092)
Abu'l Ghazi Hasan Bey (Kayseri)Malik-Shah I
(r. 1072–1092)
Kīrmān[42] Shah
(r. 1073–1074)
Sultan Shah[42]
(r. 1074–1085)
Turan I Shah[42]
(r. 1085–1097)
Anūsh Tekīn
(r. 1077-1097)
Ayisha[38] Khātun
(r. in Malatya)
Kilij Arslan I
(r. 1092–1107)
Kulan Arslan (Dāvûd)[38]Mahmud I[43][44][45]
(r. 1092–1094)
Barkiyaruq[46]
(r. 1092–1104)
Arslan Shah I
(r. 1101–1142)
Muhammad I Mālīk Shah
(r. 1142–1156)
Îrânshah
(r. 1097–1101)
Ekinchi
(r. 1097)
Toghrul Arslan[38]
(r. 1107-1124)
Malīk Shah of Rûm
(r. 1110–1116)
Muhammad I Tapar
(r. 1105–1118)
Malik-Shah II
(r. 1104-1105)
Toghrul Shah[42]
(r. 1156–1170)
Bahrām Shah
(r. 1170 - 1175)[42]
Arslan II Shah
(r. 1170 - 1177)[42]
Turan II Shah
(r. 1177–1183)
Muhammad II
(r. 1183–1187)
Qutbū'd-Dīn
Muhammad
(r. 1097-1127)
Gündüz Alp[47]Rukn ad-Dīn Mas'ūd I
(r. 1116–1156)
Malīk Arab[38]
(r. 1116-1127)
in Ankara
Ahmad Sanjar
(r. 1118-1153)
Last Sultan of The Great Seljuk
Mahmud II[48][49]
(r. 1118–1131)
First sultan of
The Iraqi Seljuks
Toghrul II[48][50]
(r. 1132–1134)
Masud[48][51]
(r. 1134–1152)
Suleiman-Shah[48]
(r. 1159–1160)
Qizil Arslan
(r. 1191)
de facto ruler of Toghrul III

Atabeg of the Eldiguzids
ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Ātsız
(r. 1127-1156)
Danismendli Grooms Yağıbasan (Sivas) & ZūnNūn (Kayseri)ʿIzz ad-Dīn
Kilij Arslan II

(r. 1156–1192)
Malīk Shāhīn Shāh (Ankara, Çankırı, Kastamonu); DaulatDawud[48]
(r. 1131–1132)
Malik-Shah III[48]
(r. 1152–1153)
Muhammad II[48]
(r. 1153–1159)
Arslan-Shah[48][52]
(r. 1160–1177)
Toghrul III[48][53]
(r. 1177–1191, 1192–1194)
Last sultan
Terken KhatunTāj ad-Dīn
İl-Arslan
(r. 1156-1172)
Rukn ad-Dīn Suleyman II Shah of Rûm
(r. 1196–1204)
The mothers of
ʿIzz ad-Dīn
Kay Kāwus I and
Jalāl ad-Dīn Kay Farīdûn
Ghiyāth ad-Dīn
Kay Khusraw I

(r. 1192–1196) &
(r. 1205–1211)
Dawlat Raziya KhatunMalīka İsmetū'd-DīnGevher Nesibe SultanQutbū'd-Dīn
Malīk Shāh
(Sivas, Aksaray)
Arslan Shāh
(Niğde)
Terken Khatun
de facto ruler of Muhammad
ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Takish
(r. 1172-1200)
Jalāl ad-Dīn Sultān Shāh
(r. 1172-1193)
Kilij Arslan III
(r. 1204–1205)
ʿIzz ad-Dīn
Kay Kāwus I

(r. 1211–1220)
Hunad-Māh Pari Khātun of Kir Fard of Alanya CastleʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn
Kay Qubād I

(r. 1220–1237)
Malīka Ādīla Ghāzīya Khātun of AyyubidsMuhyi'd-Dīn Masud Shāh (Ankara, Çankırı, Eskişehir)Nurū'd-[Dīn Mahmud Sultān Shāh (Kayseri)ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Muhammad
(r. 1200-1220)
Jalāl ad-Dīn Mangubardī
(r. 1220-1231)
Jalāl ad-Dīn
Kay Farīdûn
(Koyulhisar)
Sāhīp Shams
ad-Dīn Īsfahānī (1246–1249)[Note 1]
Bardūlīya Khātun (Prodoulia)Ghiyāth ad-Dīn
Kay Khusraw II

(r. 1237–1246)
Gurju Khatun (Bagrationi dynasty of Georgians)Mu‘in ad-Dīn Suleyman[Note 2] (Parwāna)ʿIzz ad-Dīn
Kilij Arslan,
Rukn ad-Dīn and two daughters
Mugisū'd-Dīn Toghrul Shāh (Elbistan)
Muizū'd-Dīn Kāysar Shāh (Malatya)
Ögedei established the Mongol rule
in Khwarezmia
(r. 1229–1241)
Karîm ad-Dīn Karaman Bey
(r. 1256–1263)
(Karamanoğulları
Anatolian Beylik)
Unknown son[54]ʿIzz ad-Dīn
Kay Kāwus II

(1246–1249)
[Note 3]
(r. 1249–1254) &
(r. 1254-1262)
[Note 4]
Rukn ad-Dīn
Kilij Arslan IV

(r. 1249–1254) &
(r. 1257-1262) &
(1262-1266)
[Note 5]
ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Kay Qubād II [Note 6]
(r. 1249–1254)
Pervâneoğulları Anatolian Beylik (established in
Sinop in 1277)
Nizāmū'd-Dīn Argun Shāh (Amasya)
Sanjar Shāh
(Ereğli)
Nasirū'd-Dīn Barkyāruk Shāh (Niksar, Koyulhisar)
Möngke appointed Hulagu, the son of Tolui, as Il khan of the Mongol Empire in 1253
Karamanoğlu Shams ad-Dīn Mehmed Bey
(Grand Vizier of ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Sīyāvuş)
ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Sīyāvuş
(15 May 1277 - 20 June 1277) [Note 7] or [Note 8]
(24 April 1279 - 30 May 1279)
Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Mas'ūd II
(r. 1282–1284) &
(r. 1284–1296)
FarāmurzGhiyāth ad-Dīn
Kay Khusraw III

(r. 1266–1282) &
(r. 1282–1284)
Mu‘in ad-Dīn Mehmed
(r. 1277-1297)
Mū'hazzab
ūd-Dīn Ali
Kubilai endorsed Abaqa, the son of Hulagu, as Il-Khan in 1270
(r. 1265–1282)
Ahmad Tagüdar
(r. 1282–1284)
Beylik of Osman establishedʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Kay Qubād III
(r. 1298-1302)[38]
Mū'hazzab
ūd-Dīn Masūd
(r. 1297-1300)
TaraqayArghun
(r. 1284–1291)
Gaykhatu
(r. 1291–1295)
Osman of Ottomans
(r. 1299-1323/4)
Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Mas'ūd II
(r. 1303-1308)[38]
Gazi Chelebi
(r. 1300-1322)
Baydu
(r. 1295)
Ghazan
(r. 1295–1304)
Öljaitü
(r. 1304–1316)

Culture and society

Kızıl Kule (Red Tower), built between 1221 and 1226 by Kayqubad I in Alanya

The Seljuk dynasty of Rum, as successors to the Great Seljuks, based its political, religious and cultural heritage on the Perso-Islamic tradition and Greco-Roman tradition,[55] even to the point of naming their sons with Persian names.[56] The Seljuks of Rum had inherited the administrative method of Persian statecraft from the Seljuk Empire, which they would later pass on to the Ottomans.[57]

As an expression of Turko-Persian culture,[58] Rum Seljuks patronized Persian art, architecture, and literature.[59] Unlike the Seljuk Empire, the Seljuk sultans of Rum had Persian names such as Kay-Khusraw, Kay-Qubadh and Kay-Ka'us. The bureaucrats and religious elite of their realm were generally Persian.[60] In the 13th-century, the majority of the Muslim inhabitants in major Anatolian urban hubs reportedly spoke Persian as their main language.[61] It was in this century that the proneness of imitating Iran in terms of administration, religion and culture reached its zenith, encouraged by the major influx of Persians refugees fleeing Mongol invasions, who brought Persian culture with them and were instrumental in creating a "second Iran" in Anatolia.[62][63] Anatolia in the early 13th century was deeply influenced by Iranian cultural, political, and literary traditions.[64]

Despite their Turkic origins, the Seljuks used Persian for administrative purposes; even their histories, which replaced Arabic, were in Persian.[59] Their usage of Turkish was hardly promoted at all.[59] Even Sultan Kilij Arslan II, as a child, spoke to courtiers in Persian.[59] Khanbaghi states the Anatolian Seljuks were even more Persianized than the Seljuks that ruled the Iranian plateau.[59] The Rahat al-sudur, the history of the Great Seljuk Empire and its breakup, written in Persian by Muhammad bin Ali Rawandi, was dedicated to Sultan Kaykhusraw I.[65] Even the Tārikh-i Āl-i Saldjūq, an anonymous history of the Sultanate of Rum, was written in Persian.[66] The sultans of Rum were largely not educated in Arabic.[67] This clearly limited the Arab influence, or at least the direct influence, to a relatively small degree.[67] In contrast, Persian literature and Iranian influence expanded because most sultans and even a significant portion of the townspeople knew the language.[67]

Inlaid metal candle holder, probably Konya, 1250-1300.

One of its most famous Persian writers, Rumi, took his name from the name of the state. Moreover, Byzantine influence in the Sultanate was also significant, since Byzantine Greek aristocracy remained part of the Seljuk nobility, and the native Byzantine (Rûm) peasants remained numerous in the region.[68][69] Based on their genealogy, it appears that the Seljuk sultans favored Christian ladies, just like the early Ottoman sultans. Within the Seljuk harem, Greek women were the most dominant.[70] Cultural Turkification in Anatolia first started during the 14th-century, particularly during the gradual rise of the Ottomans.[71] With a population that included Byzantine Greeks, Armenians, Kurds, Turks, and Persians, the Seljuks were very successful between 1220 and 1250 and set the groundwork for later Islamization of Anatolia.[72]

Architecture

Gök Medrese (Celestial Madrasa) of Sivas, built by a Greek (Rûm) subject in the periodic capital of the Sultanate of Rum

In their construction of caravanserais, madrasas and mosques, the Rum Seljuks translated the Iranian Seljuk architecture of bricks and plaster into the use of stone.[73] Among these, the caravanserais (or hans), used as stops, trading posts and defense for caravans, and of which about a hundred structures were built during the Anatolian Seljuk period, are particularly remarkable. Along with Persian influences, which had an indisputable effect,[74] Seljuk architecture was inspired by local Byzantine (Rûm) architects, for example the Gök Medrese (Sivas), and by Armenians.[75] As such, Anatolian architecture represents some of the most distinctive and impressive constructions in the entire history of Islamic architecture. Later, this Anatolian architecture would be inherited by the Sultanate of India.[76]

The largest caravanserai is the Sultan Han (built in 1229) on the road between the cities of Konya and Aksaray, in the township of Sultanhanı, covering 3,900 m2 (42,000 sq ft). There are two caravanserais that carry the name "Sultan Han", the other one being between Kayseri and Sivas. Furthermore, apart from Sultanhanı, five other towns across Turkey owe their names to caravanserais built there. These are Alacahan in Kangal, Durağan, Hekimhan and Kadınhanı, as well as the township of Akhan within the Denizli metropolitan area. The caravanserai of Hekimhan is unique in having, underneath the usual inscription in Arabic with information relating to the edifice, two further inscriptions in Armenian and Syriac, since it was constructed by the sultan Kayqubad I's doctor (hekim) who is thought to have been a former Christian who converted to Islam. There are other particular cases like the settlement in Kalehisar (contiguous to an ancient Hittite site) near Alaca, founded by the Seljuk commander Hüsameddin Temurlu, who had taken refuge in the region after the defeat in the Battle of Köse Dağ and had founded a township comprising a castle, a madrasa, a habitation zone and a caravanserai, which were later abandoned apparently around the 16th century. All but the caravanserai, which remains undiscovered, was explored in the 1960s by the art historian Oktay Aslanapa, and the finds as well as a number of documents attest to the existence of a vivid settlement in the site, such as a 1463 Ottoman firman which instructs the headmaster of the madrasa to lodge not in the school but in the caravanserai.[citation needed]

The Seljuk palaces, as well as their armies, were staffed with ghulams (plural ghilmân, Arabic: غِلْمَان), enslaved youths taken from non-Muslim communities, mainly Greeks from former Byzantine territories. The practice of keeping ghulams may have offered a model for the later devşirme during the time of the Ottoman Empire.[77]

Dynasty

Dirham of Kaykhusraw II, minted at Sivas, 1240–1241 AD
Part of a series on the
History of Turkey
Turkey in Asia Minor and Transcaucasia, 1921
Palaeolithic Anatolia c. 500,000– 
10,000 BC
Mesolithic Anatolia c. 11,000– 
9,000 BC
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5,500 BC
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Lydia 685–547 BC
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Antigonids 306–168 BC
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As regards with the names of the sultans, there are variants in form and spelling depending on the preferences displayed by one source or the other, either for fidelity in transliterating the Persian variant of the Arabic script which the sultans used, or for a rendering corresponding to the modern Turkish phonology and orthography. Some sultans had two names that they chose to use alternatively in reference to their legacy. While the two palaces built by Alaeddin Keykubad I carry the names Kubadabad Palace and Keykubadiye Palace, he named his mosque in Konya as Alâeddin Mosque and the port city of Alanya he had captured as "Alaiye". Similarly, the medrese built by Kaykhusraw I in Kayseri, within the complex (külliye) dedicated to his sister Gevher Nesibe, was named Gıyasiye Medrese, and the one built by Kaykaus I in Sivas as Izzediye Medrese.[citation needed]

Sultan Reign Notes
1. Qutalmish 1060–1064 Contended with Alp Arslan for succession to the Imperial Seljuk throne.
2. Suleiman ibn Qutulmish 1075–1077 de facto rules Turkmen around İznik and İzmit;
1077–1086 recognised Sultan of Rûm by Malik-Shah I of the Great Seljuks
Founder of Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate with capital in İznik
3. Kilij Arslan I 1092–1107 First sultan in Konya
4. Malik Shah 1107–1116
5. Masud I 1116–1156
6. 'Izz al-Din Kilij Arslan II 1156–1192
7. Giyath al-Din Kaykhusraw I 1192–1196 First reign
8. Rukn al-Din Suleiman II 1196–1204
9. Kilij Arslan III 1204–1205
(7.) Giyath al-Din Kaykhusraw I 1205–1211 Second reign
10. 'Izz al-Din Kayka'us I 1211–1220
11. 'Ala al-Din Kayqubad I 1220–1237
12. Giyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II 1237–1246 After his death, sultanate split until 1260 when Kilij Arslan IV remained the sole ruler
13. 'Izz al-Din Kayka'us II 1246–1262
14. Rukn al-Din Kilij Arslan IV 1249–1266
15. 'Ala al-Din Kayqubad II 1249–1254
16. Giyath al-Din Kaykhusraw III 1266–1284
17. Giyath al-Din Masud II 1282–1296 First reign
18. 'Ala al-Din Kayqubad III 1298–1302
(17.) Giyath al-Din Masud II 1303–1308 Second reign

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Modernly referred to as Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate (Persian: سلجوقیان روم, romanizedSaljûqiyân-i Rûm, lit.'Seljuks of Rûm'), Sultanate of Iconium, Anatolian Seljuk State (Turkish: Anadolu Selçuklu Devleti) or Seljuks of Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye Selçukluları)[7]

Footnotes

  1. ^ Grand Vizier Sāhīp Shams ad-Dīn Īsfahānī ruled the country on behalf of ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus II between 1246 and 1249
  2. ^ Grand Vizier Parwāna Mu‘in al-Din Suleyman ruled the country on behalf of Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Kay Khusraw III between 1266 and 2 August 1277 (1 Rabi' al-awwal 676)
  3. ^ Between 1246 and 1249 ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus II reigned alone
  4. ^ ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus II was defeated on October 14, 1256 in Sultanhanı (Sultan Han, Aksaray) and he acceded to the throne on May 1, 1257 again after the departure of Baiju Noyan from Anatolia
  5. ^ Between 1262 and 1266 Rukn ad-Dīn Kilij Arslan IV reigned alone
  6. ^ Between 1249 and 1254 triple reign of three brothers
  7. ^ According to İbn Bîbî, el-Evâmirü’l-ʿAlâʾiyye, p. 727. (10 Dhu al-Hijjah 675 - 17 Muharram 676)
  8. ^ According to Yazıcıoğlu Ali, Tevârih-i Âl-i Selçuk, p. 62. (10 Dhu al-Hijjah 677 - 17 Muharram 678)

References

  1. ^ Mecit 2013, p. 82.
  2. ^ Andrew Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz, The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East, (I.B. Tauris, 2013), 132; "The official use of the Greek language by the Seljuk chancery is well known".
  3. ^ Mehmed Fuad Koprulu (2006). Early Mystics in Turkish Literature. p. 207.
  4. ^ Grousset, Rene, The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, (Rutgers University Press, 2002), 157; "...the Seljuk court at Konya adopted Persian as its official language."
  5. ^ Bernard Lewis, Istanbul and the Civilization of the Ottoman Empire, (University of Oklahoma Press, 1963), 29; "The literature of Seljuk Anatolia was almost entirely in Persian...".
  6. ^ A.C.S. Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz, The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East, (I.B. Tauris, 2015), 265.
  7. ^ Beihammer, Alexander Daniel (2017). Byzantium and the Emergence of Muslim-Turkish Anatolia, ca. 1040-1130. New York: Routledge. p. 15.
  8. ^ Alexander Kazhdan, "Rūm" The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (Oxford University Press, 1991), vol. 3, p. 1816. Paul Wittek, Rise of the Ottoman Empire, Royal Asiatic Society Books, Routledge (2013), p. 81: "This state too bore the name of Rûm, if not officially, then at least in everyday usage, and its princes appear in the Eastern chronicles under the name Seljuks of Rûm (Ar.: Salâjika ar-Rûm). A. Christian Van Gorder, Christianity in Persia and the Status of Non-muslims in Iran p. 215: "The Seljuqs called the lands of their sultanate Rûm because it had been established on territory long considered 'Roman', i.e. Byzantine, by Muslim armies."
  9. ^ Shukurov 2020, p. 145.
  10. ^ a b John Joseph Saunders, The History of the Mongol Conquests, (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971), 79.
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  14. ^ Frankopan 2013, p. 51.
  15. ^ Frankopan 2013, p. 52.
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  18. ^ These knights were equipped with long swords and bows, and for protection used large shields ("kite-shields"), lamellar armour and hauberk mail Gorelik, Michael (1979). Oriental Armour of the Near and Middle East from the Eighth to the Fifteenth Centuries as Shown in Works of Art (in Islamic Arms and Armour). London: Robert Elgood. p. Fig.38. ISBN 978-0859674706.
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External links

  • Yavuz, Ayşıl Tükel. "The concepts that shape Anatolian Seljuq caravanserais" (PDF). ArchNet. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-07-04.
  • "List of Seljuk edifices". ArchNet. Archived from the original on 2007-04-05.
  • Katharine Branning. "Examples of caravanserais built by the Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate". Turkish Hans.
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Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
Ancestor
Qutalmish
Founder
Suleyman I
Capital
İznik, then Konya
Important centers and extension
Dynasty
Chronology
Wars and major battles
Culture
Arts
Writers and scholars
Other notable people
Tzachas (1081 - 1092)
Founder
Tzachas
Capital
İzmir
Important centers and extension:
Shah-Armens (1100–1207)
Founder
Sökmen el Kutbi
Capital
Ahlat
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
  • Sökmen el Kutbi (1100–1112)
  • Ibrahim bin Sökmen (? - ?)
  • Ahmed bin Ibrahim (? - ?)
  • Sökmen the Second (1128–1185)
  • Seyfeddin Begtimur (1185–1193)
  • Aksungur (1193–1197)
  • Muhammed bin Begtimur (1185–1207)
Important works:
  • Ahlat Tombs
Artuqids (1102 - )
Ancestors
Eksük and his son Artuk, from Döğer Oghuz Türkmen clan
Founder
Muinüddin Sökmen Bey
Capitals
Three branches in Hasankeyf, Mardin and Harput
Important centers and extension:
Hasankeyf Dynasty or Sökmenli Dynasty:
  • Müinüddin Sökmen Bey (1102–1104)
  • Sökmenli Ibrahim Bey (1104–1131)
Mardin Dynasty or Ilgazi Dynasty:
  • Necmeddin Ilgazi (1106–1122)
  • Hüsameddin Timurtaş (1122–1154)
  • Necmeddin Alp (1154–1176)
Harput Dynasty:
  • Belek Bey (1112–1124)
  • Nureddin Muhammed (? - ?)
  • Sökmen the Second (? - ?)
Danishmends (1071–1178)
Founder
Danishmend Gazi
Capitals
Sivas
Niksar
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
Mengujekids (1071–1277)
Founder
Mengücek Bey
Capitals
Erzincan, later also Divriği
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
Mengücek Bey (1071–1118)
Mengücekli Ishak Bey (1118–1120)
1120–1142
Temporarily incorporated into the Beylik of Danishmends
Erzincan and Kemah Branch
Mengücekli Davud Shah (1142- ?)
1228
Incorporation into the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
Divriği Branch
Mengücekli Süleyman Shah (1142- ?)
1277
Beylik destroyed by Abaka
Saltukids (1072–1202)
Founder
Saltuk Bey
Capital
Erzurum
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
  • Saltuk Bey (1072–1102)
  • Ali bin Ebu'l-Kâsım (1102 - ~1124)
  • Ziyâüddin Gazi (~1124–1132)
  • Izzeddin Saltuk (1132–1168)
  • Nâsırüddin Muhammed (1168–1191)
  • Mama Hatun (1191–1200)
  • Melikshah bin Muhammed (1200–1202)
Aydinids (1307–1425)
Founder
Aydınoğlu Mehmed Bey
Capitals
Birgi, later Ayasluğ
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
  • Aydınoğlu Mehmed Bey (1307–1334)
  • Umur Beg (1334–1348)
  • Aydınoğlu Hızır Bey (? - ?)
  • Aydınoğlu Isa Bey (- 1390)
Events
1390
First period of incorporation (by marriage) into the Ottoman Empire under Bayezid I the Thunderbolt
1402–1414
Second period of Beylik reconstituted by Tamerlane to Aydınoğlu Musa Bey (1402–1403)
Aydınoğlu Umur Bey (1403–1405)
İzmiroğlu Cüneyd Bey (1405–1425 with intervals)
1425
Second and last incorporation (by conquest) into the Ottoman realm under Murad II
Candaroğulları (~1300–1461)
Founder
Şemseddin Yaman Candar, commander descended from Kayı branch of Oghuz Turks in the imperial army of Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
Capital
Kastamonu
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
  • Candaroğlu Süleyman Pasha (1309 - ~1340)
  • Candaroğlu Ibrahim Bey (1340–1345)
  • Candaroğlu Adil Bey (1340–1361)
  • Celaleddin Bayezid (1361–1385)
  • Candaroğlu Süleyman Pasha the Second (1384–1392)
Sinop Dynasty or Isfendiyarid Dynasty :
  • Isfendiyar Bey (1385–1440)
  • Taceddin Ibrahim Bey (1440–1443)
  • Kemaleddin Ismail Bey (1443–1461)
Chobanids (1227–1309)
Founder
Hüsamettin Çoban Bey, commander from Kayı Oghuz clan of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
Capital
Kastamonu
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
Dulkadirids (1348- ~1525)
Ancestor
Hasan Dulkadir
Founder
Zeyneddin Karaca Bey
Capital
Elbistan
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
  • Zeyneddin Karaca Bey (1348–1348)
  • Dulkadiroğlu Halil Bey (1348–1386)
  • Sûli Bey (1386–1396)
  • Nâsıreddin Mehmed Bey (1396–1443)
  • Dulkadiroğlu Süleyman Bey (1443–1454)
  • Melik Arslan (?-?)
  • Shah Budak (?-1492)
  • Şahsuvar (?-?)
  • Alaüddevle Bozkurt Bey (1492–1507)
  • Şahsuvaroğlu Ali Bey (1507- ~1525)
Eretnids (1328–1381)
Founder
Eretna Bey, brother-in-law of the Ilkhanid governor for Anatolia, Timurtash
Capital
Sivas, later Kayseri
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
Eshrefids (1288–1326)
Founder
Seyfeddin Süleyman Bey, regent to the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
Capital
Beyşehir
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
  • Seyfeddin Süleyman Bey (1288–1302)
  • Eşrefoğlu Mehmed Bey (1302–1320)
  • Eşrefoğlu Süleyman Bey the Second (1320–1326)
Germiyanids (1300–1429)
Ancestor
Kerimüddin Alişir
Founder
Germiyanlı Yakub Bey the First
Capital
Kütahya
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
Hamidids (~1280–1374)
Ancestors
Hamid and his son Ilyas Bey, frontier rulers under Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
Founder
Hamidoğlu Feleküddin Dündar Bey
Capital
Isparta
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
  • Hamidoğlu Feleküddin Dündar Bey (~1280–1324)
  • Hamidoğlu Hızır Bey (1324–1330)
  • Hamidoğlu Necmeddin Ishak Bey (? - ?)
  • Hamidoğlu Muzafferüddin Mustafa Bey (? - ?)
  • Hamidoğlu Hüsameddin Ilyas Bey (? - ?)
  • Hamidoğlu Kemaleddin Hüseyin Bey (? - 1391)
Karamanids (~1250–1487)
Ancestor
Nure Sûfi from Afshar Oghuz clan
Founder
Kerimeddin Karaman Bey
Capitals
successively Ereğli
Ermenek
Larende (Karaman)
Konya
Mut
Dynasty:
Karasids (1303–1360)
Ancestor
Melik Danişmend Gazi
Founder
Karesi Bey
Capital
Balıkesir
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
  • Karesi Bey (1307–1328)
  • Demir Han (1328–1345)
  • Yahşı Han (1328–1345)
  • Süleyman Bey (1345–1360)
Ladik (~1300–1368)
Ancestor
Germiyanlı Ali Bey
Founder
Inanç Bey
Capital
Denizli
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
  • Inanç Bey (~1300 - ~1314)
  • Murad Arslan (~1314 - ?)
  • Inançoğlu Ishak Bey (? - ~1360)
  • Süleyman Bey (1345–1368)
Menteshe (~1261–1424)
Founder
Menteshe Bey
Capitals
Beçin castle and nearby Milas, later also Balat
Important centers and extension
Dynasty:
  • Menteshe Bey (~1261 - ~1282)
  • Mesut (~1282 - ~1320)
  • Orhan (~1320 - ~1340)
  • Ibrahim (~1340 - ~1360)
Pervâneoğlu (1261–1322)
Ancestor
Mühezzibeddin Ali Kâşî (vizier of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum)
Founder
Süleyman Pervâne
Capital
Sinop
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
Ramadanids (1352–1516)
Founder
Ramazan Bey from Yüreğir Oghuz clan
Capitals
Adana
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
  • Ibrahim Bey (1344-?)
  • Ahmed Bey (?-1416)
  • Ibrahim Bey (1416–1417)
  • Hamza Bey (1417–1427)
  • Mehmed Bey (1427-?)
  • Eyluk Bey (? - ?)
  • Dündar Bey (? - ?)
  • Omer Bey (?-1490)
  • Giyas al-Din Halil Bey (1490–1511)
  • Hahmud Bey (1511–1516)
  • Selim Bey (?-?)
  • Kubad Bey (1517-?)
Sahib Ataids (1275–1341)
Founder
Sahib Ata Fahreddin Ali, vizier of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
Capital
Afyonkarahisar
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty
  • Sahib Ata Fahreddin Ali (1275–1288) and sons
  • Nusreddin Ahmed (1288–1341)
Sarukhanids (1302–1410)
Founder
Saruhan Bey
Capital
Manisa
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty
  • Saruhan Bey (1302–1345)
  • Fahreddin Ilyas Bey
  • Muzafferuddin Ishak Bey (-1388)
  • Hızır Shah (1388–1390)
Teke (1301–1423)
Ancestors
Hamidoğlu dynasty
Founder
Tekeoğlu Yunus Bey
Capitals
Antalya
Korkuteli
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
  • Tekeoğlu Yunus Bey (1301-?)
  • Tekeoğlu Mehmud Bey (?-1327)
  • Tekeoğlu Hızır Bey (? - ?)
  • Tekeoğlu Dadı Bey (?-?)
  • Zincirkıran Mehmed Bey (~1360 - ~1375)
  • Tekeoğlu Osman Bey (~1375–1390)
Turkey Turkey Portal
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Early Seljukids
Sultans of the Seljuk Empire (1037–1194)
Governors of Khorasan (1040–1118)
Governors of Kerman (1048–1188)
Governors of Damascus (1076–1105)
Governors of Aleppo (1086–1117)
Sultans of Rum (1092–1307)
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Crusades: battles in the Levant (1096–1303)
First Crusade

Period post-First Crusade

Second Crusade

Period post-Second Crusade

Third Crusade

  • Acre and Tyre
  • Philomelion
  • Iconium
  • 1st Arsuf
  • 1st Jaffa

Period post-Third Crusade

Fourth Crusade

Fifth Crusade

Sixth Crusade and aftermath

  • Gaza
  • 3rd Jerusalem
  • Forbie
  • 3rd Ascalon

Seventh Crusade

  • 3rd Damietta
  • 2nd Mansurah
  • 2nd Fariskur

End of the Crusader states in the Levant