Jingxiang rebellion

The Jingxiang rebellion was a series of rebellions that took place between 1465 and 1476 in the Ming dynasty, during the reign of the Chenghua Emperor. These rebellions occurred in the Jingzhou and Xiangyang prefectures, located in the northeast of Huguang in central China. The rebellions were led by illegal immigrants who had settled in these peripheral areas of Huguang. These immigrants formed their own independent organization, separate from the Ming state. However, they were repeatedly defeated by the Ming army. The situation was only resolved when the Ming court recognized the immigrants' right to the land they occupied and implemented proper state administration in the affected territory.

Background

The Jingxiang rebellion of 1465–1476 was the most significant uprising in China during the 15th century. It was also considered the most significant social upheaval in the Ming state between the civil war of 1399–1402 and the Li Zicheng rebellion in the final years of the Ming dynasty.[1]

It was named after the prefectures of Jingzhou and Xiangyang, located in the northwestern corner of Huguang in central China. These prefectures were vast, spanning over 300 km in all directions, and despite a considerable amount of mountainous terrain, they were fertile. During the Tang and Song periods, they were densely populated and relatively close to the political center of the empire. However, after the invasions and struggles of the Yuan period, the region was practically depopulated in the 14th century and became a haven for refugees.[1]

In 1369–1370, General Deng Yu (鄧兪) conquered the region and established Ming administration.[2] Immigration was banned.[3] Over the following decades, the area remained sparsely populated but relatively peaceful. In the 1430s, famine victims from Henan fled to the region, leading to an increase in population and independent organization.[4]

In the 1450s and 1460s, hundreds of thousands of illegal immigrants,[4] refugees from hunger, taxes, and the law, flocked to the Jingxiang region. By the mid-1460s, the population had reached two million. These individuals were not registered in official registers (Yellow registers), did not pay taxes, and lived independently from the state.[3]

Rebellions of 1465–1466 and 1470

In the 1460s, local residents began to unite[4] under the leadership of strongman Liu Tong (劉通) and the monk Shi Long (石龍), also known by their nicknames Liu Qianjin (劉千斤, or Liu the lifter of a thousand catties) and Shi the Monk (石和尚).[5] Liu united small bandits and declared himself King of Han, and proclaimed the era of "Desheng" (德勝; 'Virtuous victory'). He established his own administration and organized an army of tens of thousands of rebels.[4]

In response, the Ming government sent troops led by Northern frontier veteran and Count of Funing Zhu Yong (朱永), along with Minister of Works Bai Gui (白圭).[a] In 1465, Zhu Yong and Bai Gui gathered troops from several provinces, including General Li Zhen's detachments from Huguang, and successfully crushed the rebellion in 1466. Liu Tong was captured in the summer of 1466.[7]

Coincidentally, a prominent comet appeared in the sky over Beijing, visible at night for an entire month, just fifteen days after Xiang Zhong's report of the rebellion's suppression reached the city. According to Chinese beliefs, the comet was seen as a sign of Heaven's displeasure with the government's actions. As a result, officials began to discuss and question the government's decisions. In their search for the cause of this divine discontent, Xiang Zhong and Li Zhen were accused of killing innocent people during their counterinsurgency efforts. However, the Chenghua Emperor stood by them and halted the prosecution.[8]

The military defeat did not solve the problem with immigrants. In 1470, another 900,000 people flocked to the region due to famine, leading to a new rebellion. The rebellion was led by Li Yuan (李原), also known as Li the Bearded (Li Huzi; 李胡子), who declared himself the "King of Great Peace" (太平王; Taiping wang).[6] He was supported by Shi Long.[3] In December 1470, Xiang Zhong,[3] Right Censor-in-chief and one of the most prominent military commanders among the officials, was sent to suppress the rebels. With the help of Li Zhen in Huguang, he gathered an army of 250,000 and successfully suppressed the rebellion.[6] Li Yuan was captured in August 1471.[3] As a result of the rebellion, hundreds of people were executed and thousands were sent into exile. Additionally, 1,5 million people returned to their homelands.[6][b]

Revolt of 1476 and aftermath

In the summer of 1476, people returned to the region and began rioting once again. In response, the government sent Yuan Jie (原傑), a censor, to investigate the social and economic conditions. This sparked a lively discussion in the capital about potential solutions to the problem. The government favored social and organizational measures, citing the Confucian belief that a proper government would bring peace to the country and its people. Yuan Jie was tasked with implementing these measures, which included recognizing the rights of immigrants to the land they cultivated and organizing the registration of land and people. He has newly registered over 113,000 families with 438,000 members. Additionally, he established several new counties and a defense military headquarters in the new prefecture of Yunyang.[9] This headquarters was responsible for the adjacent counties of neighboring provinces and was headed by a grand coordinator (xunfu). After a year of work, Yuan Jie was able to stabilize the situation and bring peace to the region through proper governance.[10]

Notes

  1. ^ Later, from 1467 to 1474, Bai Gui served as Minister of War.[6]
  2. ^ After the defeat of the rebellion, Xiang Zhong was transferred to the northern border and later became Minister of Justice. In 1474, he also took on the role of Minister of War.[6]

References

Citations

  1. ^ a b Mote (1998), p. 384.
  2. ^ Mote (1998), p. 385.
  3. ^ a b c d e Goodrich & Fang (1976), p. 536.
  4. ^ a b c d Mote (1998), p. 386.
  5. ^ Brook (2003), p. 118.
  6. ^ a b c d e Mote (1998), p. 387.
  7. ^ Mote (1998), pp. 386–387.
  8. ^ Goodrich & Fang (1976), p. 537.
  9. ^ Mote (1998), p. 388.
  10. ^ Mote (1998), p. 389.

Works cited

  • Mote, Frederick W. (1998). "The Ch'eng-hua and Hung-chih reigns, 1465—1505". In Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis C (eds.). The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521243327.
  • Goodrich, L. Carington; Fang, Chaoying (1976). Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368-1644. Vol. 1., A–L. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-03801-1.
  • Brook, Timothy (2003). Čtvero ročních období dynastie Ming: Čína v období 1368–1644 [The Confusions of Pleasure] (in Czech). Translated by Liščák, Vladimír (1st ed.). Praha: Vyšehrad. ISBN 80-7021-583-6.