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Josei Tennō

Josei Tennō (女性天皇)
Creation date686
Created byEmpress Jitō
First holderEmpress Suiko (posthumously)
Empress Jitō (officially)
Last holderEmpress Go-Sakuramachi
Subsidiary titlesNone
StatusExtinct (unless Japan allows female rulers again)
Extinction date1889 (under the Imperial House Law of 1889, which barred women from ruling)[1]
SupportersAbout 90% of Japanese people support the idea of a reigning empress (according to a 2024 survey)[2]
Empress Suiko, the first verifiable empress regnant.
Empress Suiko, the first verifiable empress regnant

Josei Tennō (女性天皇) is a Japanese term referring to an empress regnant.[a][3] Unlike the title Kōgō, which refers only to an empress consort, Josei Tennō only refers to a reigning empress. Tennō is the title for the emperor; the addition of the term josei (女性, woman) distinguishes that the emperor is a woman; therefore, a reigning empress.[note 1]

Origins

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Before Emperor Tenmu (the first to use the title Tennō),[4][5] all monarchs were likely called Great King/Queen of Yamato, and not Tennō.

From the reign of Empress Jitō onwards, emperors (Tennō 天皇) who were women were distinguished from their male counterparts with the qualifier of josei (女性, woman).[3][4][5] However, as empresses regnant, they held the rank of Tennō without the qualifier, indicating they were emperors equal to their male counterparts. Due to this, it is generally acceptable and preferred to use Tennō when referring to a female monarch.

Before the influence of the Fujiwara clan and their Five regent houses, and in times when an heir was underaged, a female relative (typically a sister or mother) would take the throne. Out of all empresses regnant, Empress Kōken (known as Shōtoku during her second reign) is the only one to have been granted the title "crown princess" before accession.[6]

Usage

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When referring to female monarchs, they are referred to as "Tennō" and not "Josei Tennō". Tennō refers to individual monarchs, regardless of gender. Therefore, Empress Meishō would be properly referred to as Meishō Tennō, and not Meishō Josei Tennō.[4]

Josei Tennō does not refer to individual female monarchs as a specific title. Instead, it refers to all the female monarchs in general (usually when distinguishing them from their male counterparts), or the concept of having a female monarch. As an example, during parliament debates, references to Josei Tennō are specifically related to the concept of having a woman (josei) succeed to the throne as an emperor, not the general concept of having a Tennō (an emperor). The addition of the qualifier josei specifies that the Tennō is a woman ruling as an emperor (i.e. an empress regnant) in her own right.[7]

Josei Tennō should also not be confused with Jokei tennō (女系天皇) which is a female-line emperor (an emperor that gains their imperial blood solely through their mother, meaning their father is not the emperor or a prince). Of that there have been none.[8]

Jokei tennō

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Jokei Tennō (女系天皇; literally meaning "matrilineal emperor") refers to an emperor whose imperial blood is solely on his mother's side.[8] A female line emperor is heavily contested by conservatives in Japan. As of 2025 there has not been an emperor who was of Imperial blood solely from his mother's side.[8][9][10]

Historically verifiable debates on whether there should be a female emperor and female line emperor go back to at least the Meiji era. However the debate ended with the consensus that further discussions should not go through.[11]

List

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Eight women have been recognized as empress regnant in Japan.

  • Empress Suiko[12]
    • When Suiko's husband Emperor Bidatsu, died, her brother Emperor Yōmei took the throne. However, Yōmei soon died of illness, and so Emperor Sushun took the throne. Sushun was assassinated and the throne was vacant. In a time of need, Suiko became the empress, and was given a regent, Prince Shōtoku. Despite having a regent, Suiko still exerted some of her own power, possibly even getting a say in who her regent would be.[13] She was likely styled as great queen of Yamato, not Tennō, which only came into use under the reigns of Emperor Tenmu, and Empress Jitō. Suiko ruled until her death.[14][15]
  • Empress Kōgyoku
    • After taking the throne, Kōgyoku was soon forced to abdicate due to the Isshi incident, when Soga-no-Iruka was killed by her son, Naka no Ōe, in front of the empress, so the impure act would not stain her reign.[15][16][17] She was succeeded by her brother, Emperor Kōtoku. Kōgyoku reigned a second time after Kōtoku's death, assuming the throne as Empress Saimei.[18][19] As Empress Saimei, she led an army to aid their ally, Baekje, against an invasion by Silla. After arriving in Chikuzen Province with her army prepared to leave for Baekje, she fell ill and died.[20]
  • Empress Jitō[21]
    • Jitō was the wife of Emperor Tenmu. After he died and her son Prince Kusakabe was deemed too young to rule, Jitō took the throne in his place until he was old enough. When Kusakabe died, Jitō remained as empress until her grandson came of age.[22] Jitō was the first to be referred as "josei tennō"[4]
  • Empress Genmei[23]
    • The wife of Jitō's son Kusakabe and Jitō's half-sister. After Genmei's son died, Genmei became empress. After copper was found near the capital, a new era in her honour (called the Wadō) was ushered in. The Kojiki was also completed under her reign.[24]
  • Empress Genshō[25]
    • The daughter of Empress Genmei. Genshō helped complete the Nihon Shoki. She was also the only empress to be preceded by another (her predecessor being her own mother).[26][27]
  • Empress Kōken
    • The daughter of Emperor Shōmu and his consort, Empress Kōmyō. Her father proclaimed her the first crown princess in Japanese history in 738 to protect the bloodline of Prince Kusakabe. She succeeded Shōmu in 749, after her father resigned to become a Buddhist monk. Kōken's first reign was heavily controlled by mother, Empress Dowager Kōmyō.[28] Kōken abdicated under pressure in 758, in favour of Emperor Junnin, and as a Daijō Tennō, she retired to become a nun. After Kōmyō's death, Junnin was deposed following the Fujiwara no Nakamaro Rebellion. Kōken, with her supporters, consolidated power to reassume the throne under a new name, Empress Shōtoku.[29] During her second reign, a monk named Dōkyō[30] became a favourite to Shōtoku, but appears to have only been given responsibilities related to religious matters[30][31]. Although it was rumoured she may have had plans to make him her heir[32], following Shōtoku's death, Dōkyō fell from power and was exiled.[33]
  • Empress Meishō[34]
    • Meishō assumed the throne at five-years-old, only becoming empress because her father was involved in the Purple Robe Incident and had to abdicate.[35] As she assumed the throne as a child, Meishō did not hold much power much like her male counterparts, as by the time of her reign, the Shōgunate system was in place.
  • Empress Go-Sakuramachi[34]
    • Similar to Empress Meishō, she did not have much power due to the shogunate. She was the last Josei Tennō and also adopted Emperor Kōkaku as her own. Empress Go-Sakuramachi died in 1813.[36]

Empress Jingū is not counted among the official monarchs.[b] Princess Iitoyo's legitimacy and validity (concerning her reign) is mostly unknown.[37]

Women who almost became emperor

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Princess Kasuga no Yamada, who was the empress of Emperor Ankan was recommended by Emperor Kinmei to succeed to the throne. However she declined and instead Kinmei himself succeeded to the throne and she became the Empress Dowager.[c][39]

Princess Sakahito was part of an attempt by Emperor Kōnin to have her succeed to the throne. This failed.[40]

The debate for a possible future Josei Tennō

[edit]
Main article: Japanese imperial succession debate

Due to the current Japanese rules of succession a woman cannot inherit the throne. Yet there has been calls to allow Aiko, Princess Toshi to become the ninth empress regnant. To this day there is an ongoing succession debate. An event was held called "Making Aiko the Imperial heir" which pushed for the rules to be changed and a new line of succession to be introduced, which would be as follows:

  1. Aiko, Princess Toshi
  2. Fumihito, Prince Akishino
  3. Princess Kako of Akishino
  4. Prince Hisahito of Akishino
  5. Masahito, Prince Hitachi
  6. Princess Akiko of Mikasa
  7. Princess Yōko of Mikasa
  8. Princess Tsuguko of Takamado[41]

A parliamentary meeting was held in December 2023 to debate the possibility of female succession to the throne.[42] In February 2024, the former Prime Minister Yoshihiko Noda of the Democratic Party of Japan held another Parliament meeting, suggesting women should be allowed to marry without losing their titles, lead their own branch of the Imperial family, and possibly rule.[43] To this day Princess Sumiko remains one of the only women to lead a branch of the imperial family.[44] On March 15, 2024, there were more discussions about allowing women to rule [45] with discussions of women being allowed to retain their titles upon marriage on March 18 of the same year.[46][47] As of June 2024, parties did agree women should marry without losing their title, with no conclusion on the status on their spouses.[48] Emperor Naruhito has also admitted the family is running out of male heirs.[49] Shigeru Ishiba who became the Japanese prime minister on October 1, 2024, is known to support a female emperor (Josei Tennō)[50]

The United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, had requested the succession laws be looked at. Takeshi Iwaya, the Minister for Foreign Affairs, expressed his displeasure in this request. The request will look over the part of the constitution which only allows men to succeed and not women.[51] A woman has not been a female emperor (Josei Tennō) since Empress Go-Sakuramachi.[52]

On April 29, 2024, a plan to secure a sufficient number of Imperial family members was announced and will be presented before the House of Councillors this summer. The idea of women retaining their title upon marriage is popular but with divided opinions on the status of their spouses and children.[53] Later in 2025, it was revealed that a plan was in the works to be put forward in the House of Councillors to secure a sufficient number of members of the Imperial family, discuss female marriage, and tackle female succession. A woman marrying and retaining her title remained popular, but there were divides on whether a woman's husband or children would be granted a title.[9] However the draft was later postponed to allow longer talks. A separate plan was talked about to discuss female marriage (which all parties agreed a woman should marry without losing her status), however the speaker of the house asked to push back the issue for further discussion, as divisions remained on whether an Imperial woman's spouse and children would receive titles from the woman's Imperial status.[10]

[edit]
  • Empress Jingū, the first mythical empress regnant.
    Empress Jingū, the first mythical empress regnant.
  • The tomb of Empress Iitoyo, also known as Empress Tsunuzashi. The validity of her reign is disputed.
    The tomb of Empress Iitoyo, also known as Empress Tsunuzashi. The validity of her reign is disputed.
  • Empress Suiko, the first woman whose reign is historically verifiable.
    Empress Suiko, the first woman whose reign is historically verifiable.
  • Empress Kōgyoku/Saimei, the second historically verifiable empress.
    Empress Kōgyoku/Saimei, the second historically verifiable empress.
  • Empress Jitō, the third historically verifiable empress, first to use the title Josei Tennō
    Empress Jitō, the third historically verifiable empress, first to use the title Josei Tennō
  • Empress Genmei, the fourth historically verifiable empress.
    Empress Genmei, the fourth historically verifiable empress.
  • Empress Genshō, the fifth historically verifiable empress.
    Empress Genshō, the fifth historically verifiable empress.
  • Empress Kōken/Shōtoku, the sixth historically verifiable empress.
    Empress Kōken/Shōtoku, the sixth historically verifiable empress.
  • Empress Meishō, the seventh historically verifiable empress.
    Empress Meishō, the seventh historically verifiable empress.
  • Empress Go-Sakuramachi, the eighth and final historically verifiable empress.
    Empress Go-Sakuramachi, the eighth and final historically verifiable empress.

See also

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Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Jotei (女帝) may also refer to an empress regnant, but primarily of another country, not Japan. It literally means "female emperor".[3]
  1. ^ Josei Tennō (女性天皇) literally means "female heavenly emperor".
  2. ^ Jingū is only sometimes referred to as Tennō (天皇) and is typically referred to only as a regent, thus she does not count as a Josei Tennō either.
  3. ^ The Empress Dowager that Emperor Kinmei appointed may also be referring to his mother, Princess Tashiraka, or Princess Tachibana no Nakatsu, widow of Emperor Senka. As such, she's not counted among most lists of Empress Dowager's.[38]

References

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  1. ^ p. 1235, "The Imperial House Law - Chapter 1: Succession to the Imperial Throne," Japan Year Book 1933, Kenkyusha Press, Foreign Association of Japan, Tokyo
  2. ^ "90% in Japan support idea of reigning empress: survey". Tokyo: Kyodo News. April 28, 2024. Retrieved June 9, 2024.
  3. ^ a b c Cherry, Kittredge (November 14, 2016). Womansword: What Japanese Words Say About Women. Stone Bridge Press. ISBN 978-1-61172-919-1. During Japan's long history eight women have ruled as female emperor or josei tenno. An older term is empress or jotei. In English "empress" can mean either a reigning monarch or the wife of an emperor, but in Japanese there are separate words for each. The title bestowed on the emperor's wife is kogo.
  4. ^ a b c d "Tennō | Emperor, Imperial, Japan | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved January 30, 2024.
  5. ^ a b Henshall, Kenneth (November 7, 2013). Historical Dictionary of Japan to 1945. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-7872-3.
  6. ^ Harper, Cathy (December 8, 2022). "More than placeholders: The 'century of empresses' against modern succession laws". Melbourne Asia Review (12). Retrieved May 28, 2024.
  7. ^ 根本, 猛; Nemoto, T. (March 10, 1999). "女性天皇と法の下の平等に関する小論 (松富弘志先生退官記念号)". 静岡大学法政研究 (in Japanese). 3 (3–4): 121–133.
  8. ^ a b c デジタル大辞泉. "女系天皇(ジョケイテンノウ)とは？ 意味や使い方". コトバンク (in Japanese). Retrieved June 21, 2025.
  9. ^ a b Shimbun, The Yomiuri (April 18, 2025). "Draft Plan on Japan Imperial Family to be Presented Before Summer Election; No Consensus on Giving Imperial Status to Spouses, Children of Female Members". japannews.yomiuri.co.jp. Retrieved June 3, 2025.
  10. ^ a b Shimbun, The Yomiuri (June 4, 2025). "Japan's Ruling, Opposition Parties to Delay Compiling Plan on Imperial Succession; General Agreement on Female Imperial Family Members Keeping Status". japannews.yomiuri.co.jp. Retrieved June 3, 2025.
  11. ^ ""Dual Lineage" as Japanese Tradition: The Female Emperor Debate Moves Forward". nippon.com. February 22, 2024. Retrieved June 21, 2025.
  12. ^ "-天皇陵-推古天皇 磯長山田陵(すいこてんのう しながのやまだのみささぎ)". kunaicho.go.jp. Retrieved January 24, 2024.
  13. ^ "Suiko | EBSCO Research Starters". www.ebsco.com. Retrieved August 22, 2025.
  14. ^ Varley, p. 126.
  15. ^ a b Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan, p. 46.
  16. ^ Ponsonby-Fane, p. 50.
  17. ^ Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697. Society. 1896. ISBN 978-0-524-05347-8. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  18. ^ "-天皇陵-". kunaicho.go.jp. Retrieved January 24, 2024.
  19. ^ Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon (in French). Oriental Translation Fund. 1834.
  20. ^ Tsurumi, E. Patricia. “Japan’s Early Female Emperors.” Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques 8, no. 1 (1981): 41–49. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41298739.
  21. ^ "-天皇陵-持統天皇 檜隈大内陵(じとうてんのう ひのくまのおおうちのみささぎ)". kunaicho.go.jp. Retrieved January 24, 2024.
  22. ^ Varley, H. Paul. Jinnō Shōtōki, p. 137.
  23. ^ "-天皇陵-元明天皇 奈保山東陵(げんめいてんのう なほやまのひがしのみささぎ)". kunaicho.go.jp. Retrieved January 24, 2024.
  24. ^ Titsingh, p. 63.
  25. ^ "-天皇陵-稱徳天皇 高野陵(しょうとくてんのう たかののみささぎ)". kunaicho.go.jp. Retrieved January 24, 2024.
  26. ^ Titsingh, pp. 64–65.
  27. ^ Yoshida, Reiji (March 27, 2007). "Life in the cloudy Imperial fishbowl". The Japan Times. Retrieved April 10, 2024.
  28. ^ Mulhern, Chieko Irie (July 1991). Heroic with Grace: Legendary Women of Japan. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0-7656-3265-4.
  29. ^ "-天皇陵-明正天皇 月輪陵(めいしょうてんのう つきのわのみささぎ)". kunaicho.go.jp. Retrieved January 24, 2024.
  30. ^ a b Piggot, Joan (2003). The Last Classical Female Sovereign: Kōken-Shōtoku Tennō. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520927827.
  31. ^ Kōjirō, Naoki; Bock, Felicia G (1993). The Nara State. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139055062.
  32. ^ "Dokyo | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved January 30, 2024.
  33. ^ Ooms, Herman (2009). Imperial politics and symbolics in ancient Japan : the Tenmu dynasty, 650-800. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 237–241.
  34. ^ a b "-天皇陵-仁孝天皇 後月輪陵(にんこうてんのう のちのつきのわのみささぎ)". kunaicho.go.jp. Retrieved January 24, 2024.
  35. ^ 三訂版, 精選版 日本国語大辞典,デジタル大辞泉,日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ),百科事典マイペディア,改訂新版 世界大百科事典,山川 日本史小辞典 改訂新版,ブリタニカ国際大百科事典 小項目事典,旺文社日本史事典. "紫衣事件(しえじけん)とは？ 意味や使い方". コトバンク (in Japanese). Retrieved January 30, 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  36. ^ Meyer, Eva-Maria (1999). Japans Kaiserhof in der Edo-Zeit: unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Jahre 1846 bis 1867 (in German). Lit. ISBN 978-3-8258-3939-0.
  37. ^ Brinkley, F. (Frank) (1915). A history of the Japanese people from the earliest times to the end of the Meiji era. New York, London: Encyclopædia Britannica Co., University of Michigan.
  38. ^ "Nihon Shoki 2". Worldcat. Retrieved August 22, 2025.
  39. ^ Kojima, Noriyuki (1996). 日本書紀 2（新編日本古典文学全集 3） [Nihonshoki 2 (Complete Works of Classical Japanese Literature, New Edition 3)] (in Japanese). 小学館. ISBN 4-09-658003-1.
  40. ^ Ko, Dorothy; Haboush, JaHyun Kim; Piggott, Joan R. (August 28, 2003). Women and Confucian Cultures in Premodern China, Korea, and Japan. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23138-2.
  41. ^ "Aiko on the Throne? Event Seeks to Pave the Way for a Female Emperor". nippon.com. September 25, 2023. Retrieved February 28, 2024.
  42. ^ INC, SANKEI DIGITAL (December 19, 2023). "皇位継承議論促進へ 額賀福志郎衆院議長が各党に意見集約要請". 産経ニュース (in Japanese). Retrieved February 28, 2024.
  43. ^ "女性宮家「緊急的な課題」 立民検討委の皇位継承案". nippon.com (in Japanese). February 20, 2024. Retrieved February 28, 2024.
  44. ^ Donald Keene, Emperor of Japan: Meiji and His World, 1852-1912, 2010
  45. ^ 内藤 慎二, 永原 慎吾 (March 15, 2024). "動くか皇位継承、与野党の議論本格化 政府は制度精通の内閣官房参与復帰の異例人事". 産経ニュース (in Japanese). Retrieved April 12, 2024.
  46. ^ "女性皇族が「結婚後も皇族の身分保持」案におおむね賛同 自民・皇室に関する懇談会｜FNNプライムオンライン". FNNプライムオンライン. March 18, 2024. Archived from the original on April 4, 2024. Retrieved April 12, 2024.
  47. ^ "安定的な皇位継承 "女性皇族が婚姻後も残る案"異論出ず | TBS NEWS DIG (1ページ)". TBS NEWS DIG (in Japanese). March 18, 2024. Retrieved April 12, 2024.
  48. ^ Shimbun, The Yomiuri (June 1, 2024). "Parties Say Japan's Married Princesses Should Keep Status; No Agreement Reached on Status of Husbands, Children". japannews.yomiuri.co.jp. Retrieved June 25, 2024.
  49. ^ Tokyo, Richard Lloyd Parry (June 25, 2024). "Japanese emperor admits his family is running out of heirs". The Times. Retrieved June 25, 2024.
  50. ^ "Japan's scandal-hit ruling party picks Shigeru Ishiba as next PM". www.bbc.com. September 27, 2024. Retrieved October 11, 2024.
  51. ^ Funakoshi, Sho; Correspondents, Yasushi Kaneko / Yomiuri Shimbun (November 23, 2024). "U.N. Panel's Stance on Imperial Succession Refuted; Experts Question Motives, Lack of Transparency". japannews.yomiuri.co.jp. Retrieved November 23, 2024. {{cite web}}: |last2= has generic name (help)
  52. ^ "Japan's Female Emperors". nippon.com. June 30, 2020. Retrieved November 23, 2024.
  53. ^ Funakoshi, Sho; Kaneko, Yasushi (April 18, 2025). "Draft Plan on Japan Imperial Family to be Presented Before Summer Election; No Consensus on Giving Imperial Status to Spouses, Children of Female Members". japannews.yomiuri.co.jp. The Yomiuri Shimbun. Retrieved April 30, 2025.