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Çayönü

This article is about the settlement in Turkey. For the village in Cyprus, see Kalopsida.
For other uses, see Çayönü (disambiguation).
Çayönü
The site of Çayönü, in southeastern Turkey
Çayönü is located in Near East
Çayönü
Shown within Near East
Çayönü is located in Turkey
Çayönü
Çayönü (Turkey)
LocationDiyarbakır Province, Turkey
Coordinates38°12′59″N 39°43′35″E / 38.21639°N 39.72639°E / 38.21639; 39.72639
TypeSettlement
History
Founded8,630 BC[1]
Abandoned6,800 BC[1]
PeriodsNeolithic

Çayönü Tepesi is a Pre-Pottery Neolithic B settlement in southeastern Turkey which prospered from circa 8,630 to 6,800 BC.[1] It is located in Diyarbakır Province forty kilometres north-west of Diyarbakır, one hundred and forty kilometres north-east of Şanlıurfa, at the foot of the Taurus mountains. It lies near the Boğazçay, a tributary of the upper Tigris River and the Bestakot, an intermittent stream. It is an early example of agriculture.

Çayönü Tepesi belongs to the "Taş Tepeler" monumental tradition of Göbekli Tepe, a style found in all the Pre-Pottery Neolithic sites of the Urfa region.[2][3] There are some variations though, such as using decorated stelae, but without the characteristic T-shape of Göbekli Tepe.[3]

Settlement

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At first, Cayonu represented single room structures that were round or had rounded corners. On top were built wattle and daub constructions. The next phase consisted of grill-plan buildings. This refers to a type of the building foundation.

"The grills were composed of a series of parallel linear stone foundations, carefully built of small stones and no more than 15 cm high (Schirmer 1990), which supported an elevated plastered floor, keeping it insulated, ventilated and dry."[4]

Archaeology

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Main Upper Mesopotamian Pre-Pottery Neolithic centers, with Çayönü

The site was excavated for 16 seasons between 1964 and 1991, initially by Robert John Braidwood and Halet Çambel and later by Mehmet Özdoğan and Aslı Erim Özdoğan.[5][6] The settlement covers the periods of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA), the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB), and the Pottery Neolithic (PN).

The stratigraphy is divided into the following subphases according to the dominant architecture:[7]

  • round, PPNA
  • grill, PPNA (grill-plan buildings)
  • channeled, Early PPNB
  • cobble paved, Middle PPNB
  • cell, Late PPNB
  • large room, final PPNB

An analysis of blood found at the site suggested that human sacrifice occurred there.[8]

Two stelae similar to the T-shapes stelae of Gobekli Tepe and Karahan Tepe were discovered in the "terrazzo floor" (layer II) at Çayönü Tepe. They are thought to have been symbolic images of men of gods. One of the two stelae had a human face in flat relief carved on it.[9][10] These findings suggest stela worship, a form of cult which was prevalent in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B period, and remained widespread in the Near-East until the 1st millennium BC.[9]

Origin of domestication

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Origin and dispersal of domestic livestock species in the Fertile Crescent (dates Before Present).[11][12]
A section of a part of a slag cake. Çayönü Tepesi, Early Bronze Age I.[13]

Çayönü Tepe developed from the cultural tradition of Gobekli Tepe, and started to implement agriculture from the 9th millenium BCE, as other sites such as Neva Çori or Cafer Höyük.[14]

Animal life – domestication of pigs and cattle

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The settlement attests to the period of transition from hunting and gathering to plant and animal domestication. Domestic animals appear in the final aspects of Phase I (preceramic); prior to that, the bones of wild game are relatively abundant. Mainly sheep was domesticated at first.[15]

In regard to cattle domestication, recently (2021) scholars make a distinction between “cattle management” and “domestic cattle”. Çayönü Tepesi provides a time sequence clarifying changes in the human management of Bos populations from the earliest times.[16]

Arbuckle and Kassebaum outline several stages of cattle management at Cayonu, and they present a rather complicated picture. Bos remains are abundant already in the earliest levels representing c. 20% of the mammalian remains. Much later, around 7500 BC, cattle reach their maximum abundance at the site, but they are still phenotypically unchanged. Decrease in cattle size is evident only around 7000 BC, and continues thereafter at this and related sites in the area.[16]

Çayönü is possibly the place where the pig (Sus scrofa) was first domesticated.[17]

Farming – cultivation of cereals

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Genetic studies of emmer wheat, the precursor of most current wheat species, show that the slopes of Mount Karaca (Karaca Dağ), which is located in close vicinity to Çayönü, was the location of first domestication. A different DNA approach pointed to Kartal Daği.[18]

Robert Braidwood wrote that "insofar as unit HA can be considered as representing all of the major pre-historic occupation at Cayonu, cultivated emmer along with cultivated einkorn was present from the earliest sub-phase."[19]

Genetics

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Origins

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Contemporary sculpted head from nearby Nevalı Çori, 8400-8100 BC (Urfa Museum)

In a 2022 genetic study, the population of Çayönü (8300-7500 BCE) was analyzed as a representative of the earliest known hunter-gatherer sedentary populations who built the monumental structure of Gobekli Tepe and domesticated various plants and animals, such as the einkorn, emmer, sheep, goats, pigs and cattles in Upper Mesopotamian.[20] The Çayönü population was shown to be genetically diverse, carrying both western and eastern Fertile Crescent ancesty, and best modelled by an ancestry combining about 48% Anatolian Epipaleolithic, 33% Central Zagros Neolithic and 19% South Levant Neolithic components.[21]

Diffusion

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class=notpageimage|
Bronze Age samples () and locations and dates of Mesopotamia_Neolithic ancestry (): Nemrik 9 (9500-8000 BC), Boncuklu (9000-8500 BC), Çayönü (8300-7500 BC).[22]

Human samples from Çayönü dated to circa 8300-7500 BC were also part of a recent 2025 genetic study, as members of a Mesopotamia_Neolithic cluster (together with Boncuklu Tarla and Nemrik 9 samples).[22] In this study, the Mesopotamia_Neolithic cluster appeared as a major ancestry of several Levantine and Egyptian Bronze Age individuals, particularly from Ebla, Ashkalon, Baq'ah and Nuwayrat.[22]

Ancestry proportions of Ascalon, Ebla, Baq'ah and Nuwayrat Bronze Age samples for the best-fit full model (qpAdm).[23]

The Nuwayrat individual in particular, an Old Kingdom adult male Egyptian of relatively high-status radiocarbon-dated to 2855–2570 BCE and dubbed "Old Kingdom individual (NUE001)", was found to be associated with North African Neolithic ancestry, but about 24% of his genetic ancestry could be sourced to the eastern Fertile Crescent, including Mesopotamia, corresponding to the Mesopotamia_Neolithic cluster.[24] The genetic profile was most closely represented by a two-source model, in which 77.6% ± 3.8% of the ancestry corresponded to genomes from the Middle Neolithic Moroccan site of Skhirat-Rouazi (dated to 4780–4230 BCE), which itself consists of predominantly (76.4 ± 4.0%) Levant Neolithic ancestry and (23.6 ± 4.0%) minor Iberomaurusian ancestry, while the remainder (22.4% ± 3.8%) was most closely related to known genomes from Neolithic Mesopotamia (dated to 9000-8000 BCE).[24][25] No other two-source model met the significance criteria (P>0.05). A total of two Three-source models also emerged, but had similar ancestry proportions, with the addition of a much smaller third-place component from the Neolithic/Chalcolithic Levant.[24] According to Lazardis, “What this sample does tell us is that at such an early date there were people in Egypt that were mostly North African in ancestry, but with some contribution of ancestry from Mesopotamia". According to Girdland-Flink, the fact that 20% of the man’s ancestry best matches older genomes from Mesopotamia, suggests that the movement of Mesopotamian people into Egypt may have been fairly substantial at some point.[26]

The timing of the admixture event cannot be calculated directly from the 2025 genetic study.[27] The 2025 study showed that the Nuwayrat sample had the greatest affinity with samples from Neolithic Mesopotamia dating to 9000-8000 BCE.[22][27] Concurrently, other studies have shown that during the Neolithic, in the 10,000-5,000 BCE period, populations from Mesopotamia and the Zagros expanded into the Near-East, particularly Anatolia, bringing with them the Neolithic package of technological innovation (domesticated plants, pottery, greater sedentism). Egypt may also have been affected by such migratory movements.[27][28] Further changes in odontometrics and dental tissues have been observed in the Nile Valley around 6000 BCE.[27] Subsequent cultural influxes from Mesopotamia are documented into the 4th millenium (3999-3000 BCE) with the appearance of Late Uruk features during the Late Pre-dynastic period of Egypt.[27]

See also

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Sources

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  • Altınışık, N. Ezgi; Kazancı, Duygu Deniz; Aydoğan, Ayça; Gemici, Hasan Can; Erdal, Ömür Dilek; Sarıaltun, Savaş; Vural, Kıvılcım Başak; Koptekin, Dilek; Gürün, Kanat; Sağlıcan, Ekin; Fernandes, Daniel; Çakan, Gökhan; Koruyucu, Meliha Melis; Lagerholm, Vendela Kempe; Karamurat, Cansu; Özkan, Mustafa; Kılınç, Gülşah Merve; Sevkar, Arda; Sürer, Elif; Götherström, Anders; Atakuman, Çiğdem; Erdal, Yılmaz Selim; Özer, Füsun; Erim Özdoğan, Aslı; Somel, Mehmet (4 November 2022). "A genomic snapshot of demographic and cultural dynamism in Upper Mesopotamia during the Neolithic Transition". Science Advances. 8 (44). doi:10.1126/sciadv.abo3609. ISSN 2375-2548.
  • Dietrich, Oliver (8 May 2016a). "The current distribution of sites with T-shaped pillars". Tepe Telegrams. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
  • Güler, Mustafa; Çelik, Bahattin; Güler, Gül (2012). "New pre-pottery neolithic settlements from Viranşehir District". Anadolu / Anatolia. 38: 164–80. doi:10.1501/Andl_0000000398.
  • Morez Jacobs, Adeline; Irish, Joel D.; Cooke, Ashley; Anastasiadou, Kyriaki; Barrington, Christopher; Gilardet, Alexandre; Kelly, Monica; Silva, Marina; Speidel, Leo; Tait, Frankie; Williams, Mia; Brucato, Nicolas; Ricaut, Francois-Xavier; Wilkinson, Caroline; Madgwick, Richard; Holt, Emily; Nederbragt, Alexandra J.; Inglis, Edward; Hajdinjak, Mateja; Skoglund, Pontus; Girdland-Flink, Linus (2 July 2025). "Whole-genome ancestry of an Old Kingdom Egyptian". Nature: 1–8. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09195-5. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 40604286.

Notes

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  1. ^ a b c Collins, Andrew (2014). Gobekli Tepe: Genesis of the Gods: The Temple of the Watchers and the Discovery of Eden. Simon and Schuster. p. 93. ISBN 9781591438359.
  2. ^ Güler, Çelik & Güler 2012.
  3. ^ a b Dietrich 2016a.
  4. ^ Haklay, Gil; Gopher, Avi (2019-06-01). "Architectural planning and measuring in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic site of Çayönü, Turkey". Paléorient (45–1). OpenEdition: 7–17. doi:10.4000/paleorient.508. ISSN 0153-9345.
  5. ^ Çambel, H.; Braidwood, R. J., eds. (1980). The Joint Istanbul-Chicago Universities' Prehistoric Research in Southeastern Anatolia. Istanbul University Publications. Vol. 2589. Istanbul. OCLC 15163668.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  6. ^ Özdoğan, A. (1999). "Çayönü". In Özdoğan, M.; Başgelen, N. (eds.). Neolithic in Turkey: The Cradle of Civilization, New Discoveries. Istanbul: EGE Yayınları. pp. 35–64. ISBN 975-6899-41-7.
  7. ^ Pearson, J; Grove, M; Ozbek, M; Hongo, H (2013). "Food and social complexity at Çayönü Tepesi, southeastern Anatolia: Stable isotope evidence of differentiation in diet according to burial practice and sex in the early Neolithic". J Anthropol Archaeol. 32 (2): 180–189. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2013.01.002. PMC 4066944. PMID 24976671.
  8. ^ Loy, Thomas H.; Wood, Andrée R. (1989). "Blood Residue Analysis at Çayönü Tepesi, Turkey". Journal of Field Archaeology. 16 (4): 451–460. doi:10.1179/jfa.1989.16.4.451.
  9. ^ a b Taracha, Piotr (2009). Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 12–14. ISBN 978-3-447-05885-8.
  10. ^ Braidwood, Robert J.; Cambel, Halet (1980). Prehistoric Research in Southeastern Anatolia -- Guneydogu Anadolu Tarihoncesi Arastirmalari Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures. Istanbul: Edebiyat Fakultesi Basimevi. p. 41 of Illustrations, Plate 2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
  11. ^ Zeder, Melinda A. (19 August 2008). "Domestication and early agriculture in the Mediterranean Basin: Origins, diffusion, and impact". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105 (33): 11597–11604, Fig.1. doi:10.1073/pnas.0801317105.
  12. ^ Ayaz, Orhan (1 January 2023). "An Alternative View on Animal Symbolism in The Göbekli Tepe Neolithic Cultural Region in the Light of New Data (Göbekli Tepe, Sayburç)". Iğdır Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi: 372. doi:10.54600/IGDIRSOSBILDER.1252928.
  13. ^ Hauptmann, Andreas (2022). "Making Copper: Processing in Early Bronze Age Arslantepe (VI B2)". METALLA. 26 (2): 113–140.
  14. ^ Taracha, Piotr (2009). Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 8. ISBN 978-3-447-05885-8.
  15. ^ Neolithic Çayönü Tepesi in SouthEast Turkey.
  16. ^ a b Arbuckle, Benjamin S; Kassebaum, Theo M (2021-05-01). "Management and domestication of cattle (Bos taurus) in Neolithic Southwest Asia". Animal Frontiers. 11 (3). Oxford University Press (OUP): 10–19. doi:10.1093/af/vfab015. ISSN 2160-6056. PMC 8214434. PMID 34158985.
  17. ^ Ervynck, A.; et al. (2001). "Born Free? New Evidence for the Status of Sus scrofa at Neolithic Çayönü Tepesi (Southeastern Anatolia, Turkey)". Paléorient. 27 (2): 47–73. doi:10.3406/paleo.2001.4731. JSTOR 41496617.
  18. ^ Civáň, Peter; et al. (2013). "Reticulated Origin of Domesticated Emmer Wheat Supports a Dynamic Model for the Emergence of Agriculture in the Fertile Crescent". PLOS One. 8 (11): e81955. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...881955C. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0081955. PMC 3843696. PMID 24312385.
  19. ^ Braidwood, Robert J.; et al. (1974). "Beginnings of Village-Farming Communities in Southeastern Turkey, 1972". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 71 (2): 568–572. Bibcode:1974PNAS...71..568B. doi:10.1073/pnas.71.2.568. PMC 388049. PMID 16592143.
  20. ^ Altınışık et al. 2022, p. 1,3.
  21. ^ Altınışık et al. 2022, p. 5.
  22. ^ a b c d Morez Jacobs et al. 2025, p. 4 fig.3c, Supplement Tables S3.
  23. ^ Morez Jacobs et al. 2025, p. 4, Fig.3a.
  24. ^ a b c Morez Jacobs et al. 2025.
  25. ^ Simões, Luciana G.; Günther, Torsten; Martínez-Sánchez, Rafael M.; Vera-Rodríguez, Juan Carlos; Iriarte, Eneko; Rodríguez-Varela, Ricardo; Bokbot, Youssef; Valdiosera, Cristina; Jakobsson, Mattias (7 June 2023). "Northwest African Neolithic initiated by migrants from Iberia and Levant". Nature. 618 (7965): 550–556. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06166-6. PMC 10266975. PMID 37286608.
  26. ^ Strickland, Ashley (2 July 2025). "The first genome sequenced from ancient Egypt reveals surprising ancestry, scientists say". CNN.
  27. ^ a b c d e Morez Jacobs et al. 2025, p. 6.
  28. ^ Lazaridis, Iosif; Alpaslan-Roodenberg, Songül (2022). "Ancient DNA from Mesopotamia suggests distinct Pre-Pottery and Pottery Neolithic migrations into Anatolia" (PDF). Science (377): 982–987.
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